{
  "id": "pentobarbital",
  "title": "Pentobarbital",
  "lang": "en",
  "source_lang": "en",
  "summary": "Pentobarbital is a short-acting barbiturate with sedative, hypnotic, anesthetic, and anticonvulsant effects, also used in veterinary euthanasia.",
  "category": "health",
  "subcategory": "drugs",
  "type": "concept",
  "aliases": [
    "Pentobarbitone",
    "Pentobarbituric acid",
    "Nembutal"
  ],
  "generated_at": "2026-10-14",
  "model": "pro/gpt-6.1-sol",
  "url": "https://aiwiki.page/en/pentobarbital/",
  "translations": {
    "zh-Hans": {
      "url": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/pentobarbital/",
      "json": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/pentobarbital.json"
    }
  },
  "sections": [
    {
      "heading": "",
      "text": "Pentobarbital is a short-acting barbiturate that depresses activity in the central nervous system. Its effects include sedation, sleep induction, anesthesia, and suppression of seizures. Pharmaceutical preparations commonly contain its sodium salt, pentobarbital sodium; Nembutal is a trade name associated with these preparations. Excessive exposure can cause profound respiratory depression, coma, and death. (dailymed.nlm.nih.gov)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Chemical identity",
      "text": "Pentobarbital is a derivative of barbituric acid with ethyl and pentan-2-yl groups attached at the ring’s 5-position. Its molecular formula is \\(\\mathrm{C_{11}H_{18}N_2O_3}\\), its molar mass is approximately \\(226.27\\ \\mathrm{g\\,mol^{-1}}\\), and its CAS registry number is 76-74-4. The sodium salt is a distinct chemical form used in injectable formulations. Pentobarbitone is an alternative name for the same active drug. (pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Mechanism of action",
      "text": "An important target is the GABA type A receptor, a ligand-gated ion channel activated by the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA. Pentobarbital enhances receptor activity, including by increasing the duration of channel openings. This strengthens inhibitory signaling and reduces neuronal excitability. Experimental recordings show that its effects depend on receptor subunit composition and drug concentration. (pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)\n\nAt higher concentrations, pentobarbital can activate these receptors without GABA; still higher concentrations can also block channel activity. Its action is therefore more complex than a uniform increase in inhibition across all concentrations and receptor types. (pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Medical uses and disposition",
      "text": "Human prescribing information includes use as a sedative, short-term treatment of insomnia, preanesthetic medication, and emergency control of certain acute convulsive episodes. Pentobarbital has little analgesic action: sedation does not itself establish relief of pain. (dailymed.nlm.nih.gov)\n\nThe drug enters the brain rapidly. Redistribution into other tissues helps terminate its immediate effects, while hepatic metabolism contributes to elimination. Consequently, “short-acting” describes its clinical action rather than rapid removal of all drug from the body; its reported adult plasma half-life is 15–50 hours. (dailymed.nlm.nih.gov)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Adverse effects and dependence",
      "text": "Important hazards include respiratory depression, low blood pressure, impaired coordination, and excessive sedation. Other central nervous system depressants, including alcohol and opioids, can intensify these effects. Repeated exposure can produce tolerance and physical dependence; abrupt withdrawal after dependence can cause seizures and delirium. Acute poisoning may progress to coma and cardiovascular collapse. (dailymed.nlm.nih.gov)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Veterinary use",
      "text": "Pentobarbital is used in veterinary sedation, anesthesia, and animal euthanasia. Euthanasia products may contain pentobarbital sodium alone or in combination with other agents, including phenytoin. These formulations have a different intended purpose from human sedative preparations. (fda.gov)\n\nResidues can remain in euthanized animals. The US Food and Drug Administration has investigated pentobarbital contamination in pet food and identified rendered animal material as a potential route into the food supply. (fda.gov)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Control and use in executions",
      "text": "In the United States, pentobarbital is listed as a Schedule II controlled substance, reflecting its recognized medical uses and high potential for abuse and dependence. (deadiversion.usdoj.gov)\n\nPentobarbital has also been used in lethal-injection procedures for the death penalty. A US federal protocol adopted in July 2019 specified it as the single lethal agent. This use is legally and administratively separate from its medical and veterinary indications. (public-inspection.federalregister.gov)"
    }
  ],
  "links": [
    "central-nervous-system",
    "anesthesia",
    "molar-mass",
    "ion-channel",
    "neurotransmitter",
    "insomnia",
    "pain",
    "brain",
    "metabolism",
    "half-life",
    "ethanol",
    "opioid",
    "united-states",
    "death-penalty"
  ],
  "sources": [
    {
      "title": "DailyMed — NEMBUTAL SODIUM- pentobarbital sodium injection",
      "url": "https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=5c380ab0-4386-48b6-80ab-ca594b23bc74"
    },
    {
      "title": "Pentobarbital — PubChem",
      "url": "https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=4737"
    },
    {
      "title": "Modulation of GABAA receptor channel gating by pentobarbital",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2278986/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Pentobarbital differentially modulates alpha1beta3delta and alpha1beta3gamma2L GABAA receptor currents",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15247320/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Pentobarbital Produces Activation and Block of α1β2γ2S GABAA Receptors in Rapidly Perfused Whole Cells and Membrane Patches: Divergent Results Can Be Explained by Pharmacokinetics",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2638204/"
    },
    {
      "title": "LIB 4665 determination of pentobarbital in ingredients",
      "url": "https://www.fda.gov/media/169762/download"
    },
    {
      "title": "FDA Freedom of Information Summary — ANADA 200-280",
      "url": "https://animaldrugsatfda.fda.gov/adafda/app/search/public/document/downloadFoi/1034"
    },
    {
      "title": "Food and Drug Administration/Center for Veterinary Medicine Report on the Risk from Pentobarbital in Dog Food",
      "url": "https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/cvm-foia-electronic-reading-room/food-and-drug-administrationcenter-veterinary-medicine-report-risk-pentobarbital-dog-food"
    },
    {
      "title": "Diversion Control Division — Controlled Substance Schedules",
      "url": "https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/schedules/schedules.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Federal Register — Notice concerning federal execution regulations",
      "url": "https://public-inspection.federalregister.gov/2022-20886.pdf"
    }
  ],
  "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
}