{
  "id": "paris-agreement",
  "title": "Paris Agreement",
  "lang": "en",
  "source_lang": "en",
  "summary": "A global climate treaty establishing shared goals and national commitments for mitigation, adaptation, and support.",
  "category": "nature",
  "subcategory": "climate-environment",
  "type": "work",
  "aliases": [
    "Paris Climate Agreement",
    "Paris Climate Accord",
    "Paris Accord"
  ],
  "generated_at": "2026-10-13",
  "model": "pro/gpt-6.1-sol",
  "url": "https://aiwiki.page/en/paris-agreement/",
  "translations": {
    "zh-Hans": {
      "url": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/paris-agreement/",
      "json": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/paris-agreement.json"
    }
  },
  "sections": [
    {
      "heading": "",
      "text": "The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change, adopted on 12 December 2015 at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris, France, and entering into force on 4 November 2016. Negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), it establishes a common framework for limiting global warming, strengthening resilience to climate impacts, and aligning financial flows with low-emission, climate-resilient development. Its temperature goal is to hold warming well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels while pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe agreement combines shared international goals with nationally determined contributions (NDCs), through which parties communicate their intended climate action. Successive contributions, reporting requirements, and periodic assessments of collective progress are designed to strengthen action over time. Its provisions also address adaptation, loss and damage, finance, technology, capacity-building, and international cooperation. Although the treaty creates binding procedural obligations, it does not assign internationally negotiated emissions quotas to each party or establish punitive sanctions for failing to achieve an NDC. This combination of national determination and international oversight defines its place in international law and global climate governance. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Negotiation and adoption",
      "text": "The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted on 9 May 1992 and opened for signature at the Rio Earth Summit that June, established the negotiating framework. It combined commitments for all parties with differentiated responsibilities: industrialized countries were expected to lead emissions mitigation and provide financial and technological support to developing countries. The Kyoto Protocol, adopted on 11 December 1997, introduced binding, internationally negotiated emissions targets for industrialized countries and economies in transition listed in its Annex B, without imposing equivalent quantified targets on developing countries. Its first commitment period, 2008–2012, required aggregate reductions averaging 5 per cent below 1990 levels. This model differed from the later Paris approach, in which all parties would formulate their own contributions. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe Copenhagen conference in December 2009 did not produce the comprehensive agreement sought by negotiators. Instead, the Conference of the Parties (COP) merely took note of the Copenhagen Accord through Decision 2/CP.15, because consensus on its adoption was absent. The accord provided for nationally submitted 2020 emissions targets from developed countries and mitigation actions from developing countries, rather than a new schedule of internationally negotiated binding targets. In December 2010, the Cancún Agreements incorporated this broader pledge-based approach into formally adopted COP decisions. Developed countries submitted economy-wide reduction targets, while developing countries submitted nationally appropriate mitigation actions, with provision for financial and technical support. Cancún also strengthened reporting arrangements and established institutions for adaptation, finance, and technology, but did not resolve the future legal framework. (unfccc.int)\n\nAt COP17 in December 2011, Decision 1/CP.17 established the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action. Its mandate was to negotiate a protocol, another legal instrument, or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention, applicable to all parties, by 2015, for implementation from 2020. The wording left the precise legal form open while extending the negotiating mandate beyond Kyoto’s division between countries with and without quantified targets. The Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP) began work in 2012 through two workstreams: one developing the 2015 agreement, the other addressing the ambition of mitigation before 2020. Discussions continued through 2013–2014; the Geneva session of 8–13 February 2015 produced a negotiating text reflecting parties’ proposals, followed by further negotiations in Bonn and Paris. (unfccc.int)\n\nA parallel process assembled national commitments before the treaty was finalized. Decisions 1/CP.19 at Warsaw in 2013 and 1/CP.20 at Lima in 2014 invited all parties to communicate intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) well before COP21, with countries ready to do so submitting during the first quarter of 2015. This separated the formulation of national contributions from negotiation of the common international framework: governments proposed their own efforts, while negotiators developed rules governing their communication and subsequent implementation. The UNFCCC synthesis report dated 30 October 2015 covered 119 INDCs submitted by 147 parties by 1 October, representing approximately 86 per cent of global greenhouse-gas emissions in 2010. The number of submissions was lower than the number of parties because the European Union and its 28 member states submitted jointly. (unfccc.int)\n\nCOP21 opened on 30 November 2015 under the presidency of French foreign minister Laurent Fabius. The ADP concluded its work on 5 December, after which consultations continued through the Comité de Paris under Fabius’s authority. On 12 December 2015, the COP adopted Decision 1/CP.21 by consensus, adopting the Paris Agreement contained in its annex. The two instruments were distinct: the annex contained the treaty, comprising 29 articles and requiring separate consent by parties to become bound; the accompanying COP decision established preparatory work, implementation tasks, and transitional arrangements, including how previously submitted INDCs would serve as first contributions. Adoption therefore settled the negotiated text but did not itself constitute ratification or bring the treaty into force. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Legal character, participation, and institutions",
      "text": "The Paris Agreement is a treaty under international law, operating within the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), rather than replacing it. Its legal character must be distinguished from the status of individual provisions: binding obligations coexist with collective objectives, nationally determined targets, and recommendations. Article 4.2 requires parties to prepare, communicate, and maintain successive nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and to pursue domestic mitigation measures aimed at achieving them; it does not impose an equivalent obligation guaranteeing achievement of every numerical target. Subsequent decisions supply operational rules within the treaty framework. For example, Decision 18/CMA.1, adopted in 2018, established detailed transparency modalities, procedures, and guidelines; these implementing rules are distinct from the treaty text adopted in 2015. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 20 opened participation to states and regional economic integration organizations that are parties to the UNFCCC. The agreement was available for signature at United Nations headquarters in New York from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017. Signature alone did not complete consent to be bound: signatories subsequently deposited instruments of ratification, acceptance, or approval with the UN Secretary-General, the depositary. Accession provided a route to participation without prior signature. These forms express consent at the international level, although the domestic procedures authorizing them differ. Article 21 established a double entry-into-force threshold: at least 55 Convention parties, accounting collectively for at least an estimated 55 percent of global greenhouse-gas emissions, had to deposit their instruments. The threshold was reached on 5 October 2016, and the agreement entered into force thirty days later, on 4 November 2016. For parties joining subsequently, entry into force normally occurs thirty days after deposit. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 16 designates the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) as the agreement’s governing body. The Convention’s Conference of the Parties (COP) thus serves in a separate legal capacity when considering Paris Agreement matters. Convention parties that have not joined the agreement may attend CMA proceedings as observers, but only Paris Agreement parties take decisions under it. The CMA reviews implementation and adopts decisions necessary to promote effective implementation. Its ordinary sessions coincide with ordinary COP sessions unless it decides otherwise. Articles 17 and 18 provide institutional continuity: the UNFCCC secretariat also serves the agreement, while the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation support its scientific, technical, and implementation work. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 28 permits a party to notify withdrawal only after three years have elapsed from the agreement’s entry into force for that party. Written notification goes to the depositary; withdrawal becomes effective one year after receipt, or on a later date specified in the notification. Consequently, an announcement of political intent is not itself an effective withdrawal. The article also provides that withdrawal from the UNFCCC constitutes withdrawal from the Paris Agreement. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe United States first deposited an instrument of acceptance on 3 September 2016 and became bound when the agreement entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its first formal withdrawal notification was received on 4 November 2019, producing withdrawal on 4 November 2020. A renewed instrument of acceptance was deposited on 20 January 2021, and participation resumed on 19 February 2021 after the thirty-day entry period. A second withdrawal notification was received on 27 January 2025; that withdrawal took effect on 27 January 2026. These depositary dates distinguish the legal changes in participation from domestic announcements or executive actions. (treaties.un.org)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Shared goals and guiding principles",
      "text": "Article 2.1(a) establishes two related but distinct temperature objectives: holding the increase in global average temperature to well below \\(2\\,^\\circ\\mathrm{C}\\) above pre-industrial levels, and pursuing efforts to limit that increase to \\(1.5\\,^\\circ\\mathrm{C}\\). The latter is not presented as interchangeable with the former: the agreement expressly recognizes that limiting warming to \\(1.5\\,^\\circ\\mathrm{C}\\) would significantly reduce climate risks and impacts. These are collective global objectives, rather than temperature limits assigned to individual countries. The treaty does not specify the years constituting its pre-industrial reference point. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change used 1850–1900 as an approximation of pre-industrial temperatures in its 2018 special report on \\(1.5\\,^\\circ\\mathrm{C}\\) warming; that scientific convention is distinct from the treaty’s wording. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 2.1(b) couples increased ability to adapt to adverse climate impacts with climate resilience and development producing low greenhouse-gas emissions, expressly requiring that this be pursued without threatening food production. Article 2.1(c) adds the objective of aligning financial flows with low-emission, climate-resilient development. Its scope is broader than financial assistance between governments: it concerns the consistency of financial flows with the development pathway itself. These goals place adaptation and finance alongside temperature limitation within the agreement’s purpose, while Article 2.1 locates the entire response within sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 2.2 directs implementation to reflect equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, qualified by different national circumstances. Participation in a common framework therefore does not imply identical expectations for every party. Concrete differentiation appears in Article 4: developed countries should continue leading through absolute economy-wide emissions-reduction targets, whereas developing countries should strengthen mitigation efforts and are encouraged to move towards economy-wide targets over time. Article 9 separately preserves developed-country obligations to provide financial resources to assist developing countries, while encouraging voluntary support from other parties. The principle thus operates through differentiated forms of action and support, not through a single numerical allocation of responsibility. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe preamble connects climate action with human rights, including the right to health and the rights of Indigenous peoples, local communities, migrants, children, persons with disabilities, and people in vulnerable situations. It also identifies the right to development, gender equality, women’s empowerment, and equity between generations. Its formulation refers to parties’ respective existing obligations and calls for those obligations to be respected, promoted, and considered when addressing climate change; it does not establish a separate catalogue of enforceable rights under the agreement. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe preamble also recognizes the imperatives of a just transition for the workforce and the creation of decent work and quality jobs consistent with nationally defined development priorities. These references provide context for interpreting and implementing the operative articles, but do not independently require a particular employment programme or confer a treaty entitlement to a specific job. Their preambular position distinguishes them from provisions such as Article 2.2, which expressly governs implementation, and Article 9.1, which states a financial-support obligation. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Mitigation and nationally determined contributions",
      "text": "Article 4.1 establishes a collective mitigation trajectory: global greenhouse-gas emissions should peak as soon as possible, followed by rapid reductions guided by the best available science, with anthropogenic emissions balanced by removals through sinks in the second half of the century. It recognizes that peaking will take longer for developing countries and places this trajectory within equity, sustainable development, and poverty eradication. The balance concerns greenhouse gases collectively, rather than carbon dioxide alone. It does not assign every country an identical peaking year or establish a universal national deadline of 2050. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe principal national instruments are nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Article 4.2 requires each party to prepare, communicate, and maintain successive NDCs and pursue domestic mitigation measures aimed at achieving their objectives. These are binding obligations concerning preparation, communication, maintenance, and action; the provision does not make achievement of each numerical target a treaty-guaranteed result. National determination nevertheless operates within substantive expectations: successive contributions must represent progression and reflect the party’s highest possible ambition, taking account of differentiated responsibilities, capabilities, and national circumstances. Article 4.4 states that developed countries should continue leading through economy-wide absolute emission-reduction targets, while developing countries should enhance their mitigation efforts and are encouraged to move toward economy-wide reduction or limitation targets over time. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 4.9 requires communication of an NDC every five years, informed by the global stocktake. This submission cycle is distinct from the period covered by a target. Decision 6/CMA.3, adopted on 13 November 2021, encouraged parties to communicate contributions in 2025 ending in 2035, contributions in 2030 ending in 2040, and equivalent contributions every five years thereafter. Its wording encourages these common end dates rather than replacing the treaty’s mandatory five-year communication cycle. Communicated contributions are recorded in a public registry maintained by the UNFCCC secretariat. Parties must provide information necessary for clarity, transparency, and understanding, enabling readers to identify such features as reference years, target periods, emissions coverage, and methodological assumptions. (unfccc.int)\n\nNDCs employ several target formats. An absolute reduction compares emissions with a historical base year; a business-as-usual target compares them with a projected reference scenario; an emissions-intensity target limits emissions per unit of economic output, commonly gross domestic product. Intensity reductions therefore need not entail declining absolute emissions. The UNFCCC’s September 2021 synthesis, covering submissions recorded through 30 July 2021, classified 35 percent of parties’ targets as absolute reductions, 43 percent as business-as-usual reductions, and 22 percent as other forms, including intensity targets, peaking objectives, and policies and measures. Many contributions combined unconditional commitments with additional conditional ambition dependent on finance, technology transfer, capacity-building, or other specified circumstances. The 2025 synthesis examined 64 new NDCs submitted between 1 January 2024 and 30 September 2025, covering approximately 30 percent of global emissions in 2019: 89 percent of those parties communicated economy-wide targets, compared with 81 percent in their previous contributions. These figures describe that submission cohort, not all parties. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 4.19 additionally calls on parties to strive to formulate and communicate long-term low-greenhouse-gas-emission development strategies, providing a longer planning horizon alongside successive NDCs. Article 5 addresses sinks and reservoirs, including forests, and encourages implementation of the existing REDD+ framework. This encompasses reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest conservation, sustainable forest management, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries, including through results-based payments. These provisions connect emissions reduction with protection and enhancement of carbon storage; they do not prescribe a particular energy technology or engineered removal method. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Adaptation and climate resilience",
      "text": "Article 7.1 establishes the global goal on adaptation: improving adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience, and reducing vulnerability to climate change, while contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate response in the context of the agreement’s temperature goal. Article 7.2 recognizes adaptation as a challenge spanning local to international scales, with particular attention to vulnerable developing countries. Article 7.5 specifies a country-driven, participatory, transparent, and gender-responsive approach, informed by science and, where appropriate, Indigenous, traditional, and local knowledge. Adaptation priorities are therefore determined nationally rather than assigned through a uniform international programme. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 7.9 requires each party, as appropriate, to undertake adaptation planning and implement actions. Its provisions cover assessing impacts and vulnerability, identifying nationally prioritized measures, formulating and implementing national adaptation plans (NAPs), and monitoring, evaluating, and learning from interventions. They also include strengthening socioeconomic and ecological resilience through economic diversification and sustainable resource management. The NAP process, established under the UNFCCC in 2010, addresses medium- and long-term needs and integrates adaptation into development planning; it is an iterative process rather than simply the production of a document. (unfccc.int)\n\nAdaptation communications provide a flexible means of presenting national priorities, plans, actions, implementation needs, and support requirements. Article 7.10 states that parties should submit and periodically update them as appropriate, without creating additional burdens for developing countries. They may be stand-alone documents or submitted as part of, or alongside, a NAP, a nationally determined contribution (NDC), a national communication, or a biennial transparency report. This flexibility allows countries to use existing planning and reporting arrangements rather than duplicate their submissions. The secretariat records communications in a public registry. Their functions include increasing the visibility of adaptation, identifying support needs, sharing experience, and supplying information for the global stocktake. (unfccc.int)\n\nIn December 2023, the fifth meeting of the parties to the agreement (CMA 5), held alongside COP28 in Dubai, adopted the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience through Decision 2/CMA.5. The framework gives more specific content to the global goal through seven thematic targets covering water, food and agriculture, health, ecosystems and biodiversity, infrastructure and settlements, poverty and livelihoods, and cultural heritage. For example, it seeks more climate-resilient food production and distribution, reduced climate-induced water scarcity, and protection of heritage sites and cultural practices. Four additional targets address the adaptation cycle: risk assessment, planning, implementation, and monitoring, evaluation, and learning. These envisage, by 2030, up-to-date assessments, country-driven plans, progress in implementation, and operational learning systems; the assessment target also includes multi-hazard early-warning systems by 2027. These are agreed objectives, not findings that the specified capacities already exist. (unfccc.int)\n\nCMA 5 also initiated the two-year UAE–Belém work programme to develop indicators for those targets. In November 2025, CMA 7 in Belém adopted 59 Belém Adaptation Indicators through Decision 12/CMA.7. They combine quantitative and qualitative measures, with contextual disaggregation possible by social group, hazard, geography, or ecosystem. The decision makes them voluntary, non-prescriptive, and non-punitive: they are not intended to compare countries, impose new reporting obligations, or condition developing countries’ access to funding. Countries are invited to integrate relevant indicators into existing planning and reporting, and the resulting information will contribute to the global stocktake. Both the 2023 framework and the 2025 indicators are subsequent implementing decisions, not provisions contained in the original 2015 treaty. CMA 7 additionally established the two-year Belém–Addis Vision on Adaptation, alongside technical work to improve indicator metadata and methodologies for consideration in 2027. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Loss and damage",
      "text": "Article 8 recognizes the importance of averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage associated with climate change, including extreme weather and slow-onset events, and identifies sustainable development as a means of reducing the risks. It calls for cooperation to improve understanding, action and support. Unlike mitigation, which limits the causes of climate change, and adaptation, which reduces vulnerability to its effects, loss and damage concerns adverse consequences, including those that cannot be avoided through adaptation. These fields overlap: preventive measures can minimize losses, while responses to damage already sustained may include recovery and rehabilitation. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 8.4 identifies eight areas for cooperation: early-warning systems; emergency preparedness; slow-onset events; irreversible and permanent losses; comprehensive risk assessment and management; insurance and risk pooling; non-economic losses; and the resilience of communities, livelihoods and ecosystems. This scope extends beyond disaster relief after sudden events such as tropical cyclones. Slow-onset processes include sea-level rise, salinization, glacial retreat and ocean acidification. Economic losses include damaged infrastructure, property and agricultural production; non-economic losses include human life, territory, cultural heritage, Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity. Their significance is not adequately represented by market prices alone. A November 2024 UNFCCC technical paper, for example, examined how loss of territory and habitability can also disrupt identity, cultural practices and social cohesion. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage, established at COP19 in 2013, supplies an institutional framework for this cooperation. Its functions include strengthening knowledge of comprehensive risk management, improving coordination among relevant institutions, and enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and capacity-building. Article 8 places it under the authority and guidance of the meeting of the parties to the agreement, known as the CMA. Separately, paragraph 51 of the accompanying adoption decision, Decision 1/CP.21, states that Article 8 does not involve or provide a basis for liability or compensation. This qualification belongs to the adoption decision, rather than the treaty’s operative text; it concerns Article 8 specifically. (unfccc.int)\n\nDedicated funding emerged through later conference decisions, not through the creation of a fund in the 2015 treaty. On 20 November 2022, COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh concluded with agreement on new funding arrangements and a dedicated fund to assist developing countries particularly vulnerable to climate change. Decisions 2/CP.27 and 2/CMA.4 also established a transitional committee to recommend institutional arrangements, governance, funding sources and coordination with existing arrangements. The distinction matters: the funding arrangements encompass a broader network of sources and initiatives, whereas the dedicated fund is one institution within that network. (unfccc.int)\n\nCOP28 in Dubai operationalized the Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage on 30 November 2023. Its governing instrument established a 26-member board, with 12 members from developed countries and 14 from developing countries, including designated representation for small island developing states and least developed countries. The fund serves the Convention’s financial mechanism and the Paris Agreement, under COP and CMA guidance. Initial commitments reported following COP28 totalled approximately USD 661 million; these were pledges, not disbursements to recipients. The World Bank was invited to host the fund’s secretariat and act as trustee for an interim four-year period, while funding decisions remained the responsibility of the fund’s independent board. The Bank approved its hosting and trustee roles in June 2024, and the operationalization agreements were signed in October 2024. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Finance, technology, and capacity-building",
      "text": "Article 9 requires developed-country parties to provide financial resources to assist developing-country parties with both mitigation and adaptation, continuing their obligations under the climate convention. Other parties are encouraged to provide support voluntarily. The article distinguishes the provision of resources from the broader mobilization of climate finance: developed countries should lead efforts to mobilize funding from diverse sources, with public finance playing a significant role alongside private investment mobilized through public interventions. Scaled-up resources should seek a balance between mitigation and adaptation, taking account of country-driven priorities and the needs of particularly vulnerable countries. Article 9 specifically recognizes the importance of public and grant-based resources for adaptation. Developed countries must also communicate indicative financial information biennially, including projected public funding where available. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe numerical finance goals originate in conference decisions rather than in Article 9 itself. The earlier collective goal of mobilizing USD 100 billion annually by 2020 was announced at Copenhagen in 2009, formalized at Cancún in 2010, and extended through 2025 at Paris in 2015. In November 2024, COP29 in Baku adopted Decision 1/CMA.6, establishing a new collective goal of at least USD 300 billion annually by 2035 for developing-country parties, with developed countries taking the lead. This goal encompasses public and private, bilateral and multilateral finance, including alternative sources; it is not solely a government-grant commitment. Separately, the decision calls on all actors to enable climate financing for developing countries from all public and private sources to reach at least USD 1.3 trillion annually by 2035. The USD 300 billion goal and the wider USD 1.3 trillion call are therefore distinct, not interchangeable figures. (oecd.org)\n\nArticle 10 requires stronger cooperation on technology development and transfer for emissions reduction and climate resilience. It makes the convention’s Technology Mechanism, established in 2010, serve the agreement and establishes a technology framework to guide its work. The mechanism comprises two complementary bodies: the Technology Executive Committee, which develops policy recommendations, and the Climate Technology Centre and Network, which supports developing countries through technical assistance and networks of expertise. The framework adopted at Katowice in 2018 organizes activity around five themes: innovation; implementation; enabling environments and capacity-building; collaboration and stakeholder engagement; and support. Technology needs assessments provide a practical mechanism for identifying national priorities, examining barriers to adoption, and developing technology action plans. Thus, implementation concerns institutional and financial conditions as well as equipment or technical knowledge. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 11 addresses developing countries’ ability to implement climate action, access finance and technology, and communicate accurate, timely information. It gives particular attention to countries with the least capacity and those especially vulnerable to climate impacts. Capacity-building should be country-driven, responsive to national needs, participatory, and attentive to gender equality, while strengthening institutions at national, subnational, and local levels. Developed countries should enhance their support, and developing countries should regularly communicate progress in implementing capacity-building plans and measures. The accompanying 2015 adoption decision established the Paris Committee on Capacity-building to address existing and emerging gaps and improve coordination; in 2019, parties decided that it would also serve the agreement. Its functions include identifying capacity needs, sharing knowledge, and promoting stakeholder engagement. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 12 requires parties to cooperate, as appropriate, in strengthening climate-related education, training, public awareness, public participation, and public access to information. These activities, together with international cooperation, are organized under Action for Climate Empowerment, which also implements Article 6 of the climate convention—not the Paris Agreement’s separate Article 6 cooperation mechanisms. At COP26 in 2021, parties adopted the ten-year Glasgow work programme to strengthen this work. Practical activities include climate content in educational curricula, teacher training, occupational skills development, public consultation, and accessible climate information, extending implementation beyond government negotiating and reporting institutions. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "International cooperation under Article 6",
      "text": "Article 6 permits voluntary cooperation in implementing nationally determined contributions (NDCs), with the objectives of raising mitigation and adaptation ambition and promoting sustainable development and environmental integrity. Article 6.2 provides an accounting framework for cooperative approaches involving internationally transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs), rather than establishing a single centrally administered crediting programme. Participating countries can arrange bilateral or multilateral cooperation and authorize mitigation outcomes for use toward another country’s NDC or other international mitigation purposes. Under the implementing guidance, ITMOs represent reductions or removals generated from 2021 onward, measured in tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent or other metrics consistent with participating countries’ NDCs. Their international use requires authorization by the participating parties. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe central safeguard against double counting is the corresponding adjustment. For outcomes accounted for in greenhouse-gas emissions balances, the transferring country adds the transferred quantity to its adjusted balance, while the acquiring country subtracts the quantity used toward its NDC. Thus, in a simplified example, transferring one million tonnes of carbon-dioxide-equivalent reductions prevents the host country from also counting that million tonnes toward its own target. These adjustments affect NDC accounting, not the physical emissions recorded in national inventories. Countries must identify authorized uses, maintain arrangements for tracking outcomes, and report through an initial report, annual information in an agreed electronic format, and regular information accompanying biennial transparency reports. Article 6 technical expert review examines consistency with the guidance; registry records and database checks support reconciliation of transfers and uses. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 6.4 establishes a centralized crediting system, known as the Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism. Its Supervisory Body comprises 12 members from parties to the agreement and operates under the authority and guidance of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA). The mechanism provides procedures for approving methodologies, registering activities, verifying reductions and issuing Article 6.4 emission reductions. Methodological requirements address baselines and additionality, while requirements for removal activities address matters including monitoring and reversals. Host-country approval of an activity and authorization of its credits for international use are distinct steps: issuance alone does not make a credit eligible for another country’s NDC. Authorized international uses are subject to the corresponding-adjustment framework. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe Article 6.4 rules also channel resources to adaptation and require mitigation beyond offsetting. A share of proceeds consisting of 5 percent of issued credits, together with monetary contributions, supports the Adaptation Fund in assisting particularly vulnerable developing countries. Separately, at least 2 percent of issued credits must be cancelled to deliver “overall mitigation in global emissions”; these cancelled units cannot subsequently be used toward an NDC or another international mitigation purpose. The percentages implement provisions established by the treaty but were specified in later decisions, rather than in the 2015 text. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 6.8 addresses non-market cooperation without transferring mitigation outcomes. It encompasses coordinated mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer and capacity-building: examples include joint clean-energy technology programmes, institutional training and grant-supported climate-resilience initiatives. The Glasgow Committee on Non-market Approaches implements the associated work programme. The UNFCCC’s Non-market Approaches Platform records initiatives and helps identify financial, technical and capacity-building support; it is an information and cooperation platform, not a credit registry. An initiative recorded under this framework must involve more than one participating party and assist implementation of host countries’ NDCs. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe principal implementing rules were adopted at COP26 in Glasgow in 2021 through Decisions 2/CMA.3, 3/CMA.3 and 4/CMA.3, covering Articles 6.2, 6.4 and 6.8 respectively. COP27 in 2022 elaborated reporting, review, registry and mechanism procedures. COP29 in Baku in 2024 further clarified authorization, first transfer, inconsistencies in reporting and registry functions, and took note of the Supervisory Body’s methodology and removals standards. COP30 in Belém in 2025 added guidance on mechanism governance, methodologies and stakeholder engagement, and inputs to the 2026 review of non-market cooperation. These treaty-based arrangements do not automatically encompass every carbon credit traded in independent voluntary markets: an independently issued unit requires the relevant authorization, accounting and reporting arrangements before it can qualify for authorized international use under Article 6. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Transparency, reporting, and compliance",
      "text": "Article 13 establishes the enhanced transparency framework (ETF) for climate action and support. It combines common reporting rules with flexibility for developing-country parties that need it because of capacity constraints. Decision 18/CMA.1, adopted in 2018, supplied its modalities, procedures and guidelines; Decision 5/CMA.3, adopted in 2021, added common reporting tables and formats. The first biennial transparency reports (BTRs) were due by 31 December 2024, with subsequent reports required every two years. Least developed countries and small island developing states may submit this information at their discretion, rather than following the standard biennial frequency. (unfccc.int)\n\nEach party must provide a national inventory of anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks, together with information necessary to track implementation and achievement of its nationally determined contribution (NDC). The inventory comprises a national inventory document and common reporting tables, and may accompany the BTR or be submitted separately. Estimates follow the 2006 guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. NDC reporting identifies the contribution’s scope, reference year or baseline, accounting methods and selected progress indicators, and compares updated indicator values with the relevant reference information. Developed-country parties must also report financial, technology-transfer and capacity-building support provided and mobilized; other parties providing support should report it. Developing-country parties should report support needed and received, while information on climate impacts and adaptation is also encouraged under Article 13. (unfccc.int)\n\nFlexibility applies to specified provisions, not to the framework as a whole. For example, the normal inventory requirement covers seven gases or gas groups; eligible developing-country parties may instead report at least carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, together with additional gases covered by their NDC, relevant Article 6 activities or previous reporting. A party applying flexibility must identify the provision concerned, explain its capacity constraint and give a self-determined timeframe for improvement. Technical reviewers cannot overturn that determination or assess whether the party could implement the provision without flexibility. This differs from the reporting-frequency discretion available to least developed countries and small island developing states. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe technical expert review checks whether mandatory inventory, NDC-progress and support information is consistent with the reporting guidelines, considers implementation and achievement, and identifies improvements and capacity-building needs. It does not judge the adequacy of a national target, domestic policies or support provided, and is not a negotiation over the NDC’s ambition. The subsequent facilitative multilateral consideration of progress allows parties to question one another about NDC implementation and achievement and efforts under Article 9 on finance. It comprises written questions and answers followed by a working-group session under the Subsidiary Body for Implementation. The first such session took place in Bonn on 21 June 2025. (unfccc.int)\n\nArticle 15 establishes a separate implementation and compliance committee. Its character is expert-based, facilitative, non-adversarial and non-punitive, with particular attention to national capabilities and circumstances. Its 12 members include two from each of the five United Nations regional groups and one each from small island developing states and least developed countries. Under its implementing rules, the committee can consider a party’s submission concerning its own implementation or compliance. It must also initiate consideration of specified procedural failures, including failure to communicate or maintain an NDC, submit mandatory transparency information, or participate in the multilateral consideration of progress. Significant and persistent reporting inconsistencies identified through technical review may be considered with the party’s consent. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe committee’s responses include dialogue, recommendations, assistance in engaging with finance, technology and capacity-building institutions, and recommendations to develop an action plan. It may issue findings of fact concerning non-compliance with specified mandatory requirements, but does not impose penalties. In choosing measures, it considers the party’s explanations and circumstances, including those of least developed countries and small island developing states and situations of force majeure. These procedures address implementation and compliance with treaty requirements rather than enforcing achievement of every numerical NDC target. (unfccc.int)"
    },
    {
      "heading": "Global stocktake and assessment of implementation",
      "text": "Article 14 establishes a five-year global stocktake to assess collective progress towards the agreement’s purpose and long-term goals. It covers mitigation, adaptation, and means of implementation and support, including finance, technology transfer, and capacity-building. The assessment is comprehensive and facilitative, conducted in light of equity and the best available science; it evaluates worldwide progress rather than assigning individual countries compliance scores. The first stocktake concluded in 2023, with the next scheduled for 2028. Its outcomes inform parties’ nationally determined updates to their actions and support, as well as stronger international cooperation. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe process has three components: information collection and preparation, technical assessment, and consideration of outputs. Inputs include national reports, scientific assessments, secretariat synthesis reports, and submissions from parties and non-party stakeholders. Technical dialogues examine this evidence, identify implementation gaps, and consider opportunities to strengthen action and support. The political consideration of outputs then translates the assessment into findings and guidance adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the agreement (CMA). The first cycle began in 2021, held technical dialogues during 2022–2023, and concluded at COP28 in Dubai in December 2023. This sequence connects reporting and scientific assessment to subsequent nationally determined contributions (NDCs), without replacing national determination of targets. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe first stocktake outcome, Decision 1/CMA.5, called on parties to contribute to global efforts to triple renewable-energy capacity and double the global average annual rate of energy-efficiency improvement by 2030. It also called for transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems in a just, orderly, and equitable manner, accelerating action during the decade towards net zero by 2050 in keeping with science. These are collective directions in a subsequent CMA decision, not numerical obligations newly inserted into the 2015 treaty or identical quotas imposed on every country. The decision expressly frames contributions to these efforts as nationally determined, taking account of different national circumstances, pathways, and approaches. (unfccc.int)\n\nThe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assesses modelled emissions pathways consistent with specified temperature limits and probabilities; UNFCCC synthesis reports aggregate the emissions implications of communicated NDCs. Two distinct gaps follow. The ambition or emissions gap compares pledged emissions with temperature-compatible pathways; the implementation gap compares emissions expected under existing policies with those implied by fulfilling pledges. The IPCC’s 2023 synthesis assessed NDCs announced before COP26 and policies implemented by the end of 2020, finding both gaps. Those findings therefore describe dated sets of commitments and policies, not an automatically updated assessment of subsequent submissions. Modelled pathways also distinguish the probability of meeting a temperature limit and whether warming temporarily overshoots it. (ipcc.ch)\n\nThe UNFCCC synthesis report dated 28 October 2025 illustrates the importance of coverage and assumptions. It examined 64 new NDCs submitted between 1 January 2024 and 30 September 2025 by 64 parties representing about 30 per cent of global emissions in 2019. Its quantified 2035 estimates covered 58 parties with targets for that year and excluded land use, land-use change, and forestry unless otherwise specified. Unconditional commitments implied emissions of 13.6 (13.3–13.9) billion tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent in 2035; full implementation including conditional commitments implied 12.3 (12.0–12.7) billion tonnes. Conditional elements commonly depended on finance, technology transfer, or capacity-building support. These figures are projections for a specified group, not observed reductions or whole-world totals. Reporting comparisons must retain the submission cut-off, baseline year, country and emissions coverage, conditionality, and uncertainty ranges; the report’s ranges reflect target ranges and quantification uncertainty rather than a single guaranteed outcome. (unfccc.int)"
    }
  ],
  "links": [
    "climate-change",
    "paris",
    "france",
    "international-law",
    "greenhouse-gas",
    "european-union",
    "united-nations",
    "united-states",
    "temperature",
    "intergovernmental-panel-on-climate-change",
    "sustainable-development",
    "poverty",
    "human-rights",
    "gender-equality",
    "forest",
    "biodiversity",
    "infrastructure",
    "sea-level-rise",
    "ocean-acidification",
    "world-bank",
    "education",
    "renewable-energy",
    "fossil-fuel"
  ],
  "sources": [
    {
      "title": "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/united-nations-framework-convention-on-climate-change"
    },
    {
      "title": "The Kyoto Protocol",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-kyoto-protocol"
    },
    {
      "title": "Milestones from the Negotiation Process",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/about-us/unfccc-archives/the-unfccc-archival-exhibition/milestones-from-the-negotiation-process"
    },
    {
      "title": "Cancún Climate Change Conference - November 2010",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/conference/cancun-climate-change-conference-november-2010"
    },
    {
      "title": "Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP)",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/process/bodies/bodies-that-have-concluded-work/ad-hoc-working-group-on-the-durban-platform-for-enhanced-action-adp"
    },
    {
      "title": "Geneva Climate Change Conference - February 2015",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/conference/geneva-climate-change-conference-february-2015"
    },
    {
      "title": "Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs)",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs/indcs"
    },
    {
      "title": "Synthesis report on the aggregate effect of the intended nationally determined contributions",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/07.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "INDC Synthesis Report Press Release",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/news/indc-synthesis-report-press-release"
    },
    {
      "title": "Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-first session: Proceedings",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Key aspects of the Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/most-requested/key-aspects-of-the-paris-agreement"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs"
    },
    {
      "title": "Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/parisagreement_publication.pdf?download="
    },
    {
      "title": "Paris Agreement and Decision 1/CP.21",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/parisagreement_publication.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "United Nations Treaty Collection: Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=27&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&src=IND"
    },
    {
      "title": "Key aspects of the Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/most-requested/key-aspects-of-the-paris-agreement"
    },
    {
      "title": "Chapter 1 — Global Warming of 1.5 ºC",
      "url": "https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-1/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Second workshop under the Sharm el-Sheikh Dialogue on Article 2, paragraph 1(c) of the Paris Agreement and its complementarity with Article 9",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/fr/node/630739"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eleventh preambular paragraph of the Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/11th-preambular-paragraph"
    },
    {
      "title": "Report of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on its third session. Addendum",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/CMA2021_10_Add3_E.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "National determined contributions under the Paris Agreement. Synthesis report by the secretariat",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_08_adv_1.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "NDC Synthesis Report",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs/ndc-synthesis-report/ndc-synthesis-report"
    },
    {
      "title": "Technical document – Approach and methods for estimating emission levels (NDC synthesis report update)",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Technical_%2520Annex_NDC_synthesis_report_update.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "2025 NDC Synthesis Report",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions-ndcs/2025-ndc-synthesis-report"
    },
    {
      "title": "National Adaptation Plans",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/national-adaptation-plans"
    },
    {
      "title": "Adaptation communications",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/topics/adaptation-and-resilience/workstreams/adaptation-communications"
    },
    {
      "title": "Adaptation",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2024-11/UAE-NDC3.0.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Global goal on adaptation",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/topics/adaptation-and-resilience/workstreams/gga"
    },
    {
      "title": "Matters relating to the global goal on adaptation",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2025_L25_adv.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Online guide on loss and damage",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/loss_and_damage_online_guide.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Technical paper on non-economic losses: featuring loss of territory and habitability, ecosystem services and biodiversity, and cultural heritage",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/technical-paper-on-non-economic-losses-featuring-loss-of-territory-and-habitability-ecosystem"
    },
    {
      "title": "Loss and damage decisions and conclusions",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/topics/resilience/resources/decisions-and-conclusions-about-loss-and-damage"
    },
    {
      "title": "Approaches to address Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change impacts in developing countries",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/topics/adaptation-and-resilience/workstreams/approaches-to-address-loss-and-damage-associated-with-climate-change-impacts-in-developing-countries"
    },
    {
      "title": "COP27 Reaches Breakthrough Agreement on New “Loss and Damage” Fund for Vulnerable Countries",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/news/cop27-reaches-breakthrough-agreement-on-new-loss-and-damage-fund-for-vulnerable-countries"
    },
    {
      "title": "Transitional Committee",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/bodies/constituted-bodies/transitional-committee"
    },
    {
      "title": "Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-eighth session. Addendum",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cp2023_11a01_adv.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "COP 28: What Was Achieved and What Happens Next?",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/cop28/5-key-takeaways"
    },
    {
      "title": "COP29: Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage",
      "url": "https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2024/11/12/fund-for-responding-to-loss-and-damage"
    },
    {
      "title": "What is technology development and transfer?",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/topics/climate-technology/what-is-technology-development-and-transfer"
    },
    {
      "title": "TT:CLEAR: Technology negotiations",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/ttclear/negotiations/"
    },
    {
      "title": "TT:CLEAR: Technology needs assessments",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/ttclear/tna"
    },
    {
      "title": "Paris Committee on Capacity-building (PCCB)",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/bodies/constituted-bodies/paris-committee-on-capacity-building-pccb"
    },
    {
      "title": "ACE and NDCs",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/topics/education-youth/resources/ace/ace-and-ndcs"
    },
    {
      "title": "COP26 Launched a Decade of Action for Climate Empowerment",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/news/cop26-launched-a-decade-of-action-for-climate-empowerment"
    },
    {
      "title": "Action for Climate Empowerment: Guidelines",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/action_for_climate_empowerment_guidelines.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Article 6.2: Reference manual for the accounting, reporting and review of cooperative approaches",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Article_6.2_Reference_Manual.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "FAQs on Article 6.2 submissions",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/article-6/article-62/carp/faqs-on-article-62-submissions"
    },
    {
      "title": "Article 6.4 Supervisory Body",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/bodies/constituted-bodies/article-64-supervisory-body"
    },
    {
      "title": "Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/article-64-mechanism"
    },
    {
      "title": "Key Standards for UN Carbon Market Finalized Ahead of COP29",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/news/key-standards-for-un-carbon-market-finalized-ahead-of-cop29"
    },
    {
      "title": "Key Outcomes from COP29: Article 6 of the Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Key-Outcomes-from-COP29_Article-6-of-the-Paris-Agreement.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "COP26 Outcomes: Finance for Climate Adaptation",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-glasgow-climate-pact/cop26-outcomes-finance-for-climate-adaptation"
    },
    {
      "title": "FAQs on non-market approaches under Article 6.8",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/article-6/article-68/faqs-on-non-market-approaches-under-article-68"
    },
    {
      "title": "Article 6 Decisions and Documentation",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/article-6/article-6-decisions-and-documentation"
    },
    {
      "title": "FAQ - Implementing the Enhanced Transparency Framework",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/FAQ-moving-towards-the-ETF"
    },
    {
      "title": "Biennial Transparency Reports",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/biennial-transparency-reports"
    },
    {
      "title": "Paris Agreement English",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/paris_agreement_english_.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Technical Expert Review",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/technical-expert-review"
    },
    {
      "title": "ETF Technical Handbook, first edition",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/ETF%2520Technical%2520Handbook%2520First%2520Edition%2520June_2020.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Facilitative, Multilateral Consideration of Progress",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/ru/node/631756"
    },
    {
      "title": "First working group session of the Facilitative, Multilateral Consideration of Progress (FMCP)",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/es/node/645929"
    },
    {
      "title": "Composition and meetings of the Committee",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/bodies/constituted-bodies/paris-agreement-implementation-and-compliance-committee-paicc/composition-and-meetings-of-the-committee"
    },
    {
      "title": "More about PAICC",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/bodies/constituted-bodies/paris-agreement-implementation-and-compliance-committee-paicc/more-about-paicc"
    },
    {
      "title": "Rules of procedure of the committee to facilitate implementation and promote compliance referred to in Article 15, paragraph 2, of the Paris Agreement",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/PAICC_decision.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Global Stocktake",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/topics/global-stocktake"
    },
    {
      "title": "The First Global Stocktake",
      "url": "https://www.unfccc.int/zh/node/656054"
    },
    {
      "title": "Outcome of the first global stocktake: Decision 1/CMA.5",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/1_CMA.5.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Summary for Policymakers",
      "url": "https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/summary-for-policymakers/?trk=public_post_comment-text"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mitigation of Climate Change",
      "url": "https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FullReport.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement: Synthesis report by the secretariat",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2025_08.pdf"
    }
  ],
  "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
}