{
  "id": "nigeria",
  "title": "Nigeria",
  "lang": "en",
  "source_lang": "en",
  "summary": "Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa, located on the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, with a land area of about 911,000 square kilometres and diverse climates, rivers, and resources.",
  "category": "geography",
  "subcategory": "",
  "type": "place",
  "aliases": [
    "奈及利亚",
    "尼日利亚联邦共和国",
    "Federal Republic of Nigeria"
  ],
  "generated_at": "2026-10-09",
  "model": "pro/claude-haiku-5-5",
  "url": "https://aiwiki.page/en/nigeria/",
  "translations": {
    "zh-Hans": {
      "url": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/nigeria/",
      "json": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/nigeria.json"
    }
  },
  "sections": [
    {
      "heading": "",
      "text": "Nigeria lies on the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, bordered by Cameroon to the east, Benin to the west, and Niger and Chad to the north. It has a land area of approximately 911,000 square kilometres. It is Africa’s most populous country and a geographical and economic centre of West Africa. Its geography is shaped by several major rivers, climate zones that become progressively drier from south to north, and terrain ranging from coastal plains to plateaus and plains in the north. Understanding Nigeria’s geography helps explain the distribution of agriculture, the concentration of cities and population, the location of oil resources, and the pressures the country faces from environmental problems such as desertification, shrinking lakes, and flooding.\n\nThis article covers geographical location and boundaries, terrain and geology, river systems and lakes, climate and vegetation, coasts and deltas, natural resources, population and cities, administrative divisions, the history of national boundaries, agriculture and land use, infrastructure, environmental issues, adaptation to climate change, and the history of geographical knowledge. Each section first introduces the basic elements of physical geography, then discusses how they interact with population distribution, economic activity, and governance, while also explaining remaining uncertainties and scholarly debates."
    },
    {
      "heading": "地理位置与疆界",
      "text": "Nigeria lies in western Africa, on the inner side of the Gulf of Guinea, which forms part of the Atlantic Ocean. Its southern coast faces the gulf, and its land frontiers run to the west, north, northeast and east. Benin borders it to the west, Niger to the north, Chad to the northeast, and Cameroon to the east. Because the country stretches from the coast to the Sahel, it crosses several climatic zones, and the whole territory lies within the tropics.\n\nThe total area is about 923,768 square kilometres, of which roughly 910,770 square kilometres is land and about 13,000 square kilometres is water. The coastline measures about 853 kilometres. Land boundary lengths vary between sources: one standard reference gives a total of about 4,047 kilometres, with Cameroon accounting for about 1,690 kilometres, Niger about 1,497 kilometres, Benin about 773 kilometres and Chad only about 87 kilometres. Other compilations give a larger total of roughly 4,477 kilometres, mainly because they use different measurements for the Cameroon and Benin frontiers. The exclusive economic zone covers about 217,000 square kilometres of the Gulf of Guinea. Maritime boundaries also exist with Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Príncipe, and the latter arrangement operates through a joint development zone that shares offshore oil revenues.\n\nThe country's position shapes its climate, trade and transport. Its southern coast gives direct access to the Atlantic, which has made ports such as Lagos central to the import and export of goods for the whole region. The northern parts of the country, by contrast, are linked by land to the Sahara and the Sahel, so the north–south axis historically connected coastal merchants with inland markets and caravan routes that reached the Sahel and beyond. This double orientation, toward the sea in the south and toward the interior in the north, has been an important factor in the country's economic and cultural development. Given its large population and its neighbours on every side, Nigeria occupies a central position in West Africa's politics and commerce, and its stability and trade policy affect the wider subregion.\n\nAbuja, the capital, lies near the geographic centre of the country, in the Federal Capital Territory, at roughly 9°N and 7°E. Lagos, on the coast in the southwest, remained the seat of government until the 1990s and continues to serve as the country's principal commercial and port city. The decision to move the capital followed congestion, poor infrastructure and the difficulty of administering the country from a city that also served as a state capital. In 1976, the military government under Murtala Mohammed announced that a new capital would be built, following the recommendations of a committee led by Justice Akinola Aguda. The government formally transferred the seat of power on 12 December 1991, although some sources give 21 December as the date the city officially became the political capital. Abuja was chosen partly because its central location and relative neutrality among the country's ethnic groups were seen as conducive to national unity. Today the two cities form complementary centres: Abuja for government in the middle of the country, and Lagos for commerce in the south.\n\nNigeria's northeastern corner touches Lake Chad, where the Chad border is very short. The boundary questions and the lake's shrinkage are discussed in other parts of this entry."
    },
    {
      "heading": "地形与地貌分区",
      "text": "Nigeria's relief generally steps down from the southern coast through a central band of hills and plateaus toward northern plains, with a mountainous zone along the eastern border. Textbook classifications often separate the country into lowlands, usually defined as land below about 300 metres, and highlands above that level. The boundary is a convention rather than a sharp natural line, so the lowland and highland units below overlap in places.\n\n南部与河谷低地\n\nMost of the south is low. The coastal plain is gently undulating, with elevation rising northward from the shore to a mean of roughly 150 metres, and it extends about 75 kilometres inland in the west and farther in the east. The Niger Delta, covering about 10,000 square kilometres, interrupts this plain. It is largely swampland cut by numerous channels and islands, and most of its surface lies between 0 and 100 metres. Inland, the Niger–Benue trough (Niger–Benue valley) forms a broad lowland at about 100 to 300 metres. Its sedimentary rocks, including limestone, sandstone and shale, reflect the long-term deposition that filled this depression. Along the Niger and Benue, the upper reaches run through narrow valleys with falls and rapids, while the lower reaches have extensive floodplains and braided channels. The Benue, for example, descends from about 1,340 metres at its source on the Adamawa Plateau to about 35 metres at Lokoja, where it joins the Niger.\n\n中部高原与丘陵\n\nThe centre of the country is dominated by plateaus. The Jos Plateau is the most prominent. Its high surfaces are underlain by basement complex rocks and volcanic rocks, and the hills there include the remains of extinct volcanoes. The Shere Hills, east of Jos, are the highest part of the Jos Plateau, reaching about 1,759 metres according to one source; other compilations give a somewhat higher figure of about 1,829 metres, so the exact value should be treated with caution. The Udi Plateau in the southeast and the Yoruba plateau in the west form other upland blocks. In the southwest, a western wedge between Abeokuta and Ibadan reaches 600 metres or more. The northern savanna also contains elevated ground: an extensive area stretching from Kontagora to Gombe, with its centre above 1,200 metres, shows that the north is not uniformly flat.\n\n东部山地与全国最高点\n\nThe eastern border is the most mountainous part of the country. Chappal Waddi, at 2,419 metres, lies in Taraba State near the Cameroon border, on the edge of the Gashaka-Gumti reserve and the Mambilla Plateau. It is the highest point in Nigeria and is often described as the highest in West Africa, and it forms part of the Bamenda–Adamawa–Mandara mountain chain shared with Cameroon. The Mambilla Plateau itself covers about 9,389 square kilometres, has an average elevation of about 1,600 metres, and is bounded in places by escarpments roughly 900 metres high. Other peaks in the same belt include Mount Dimlang, at about 2,042 metres in Adamawa State, and the Obudu Plateau, which rises above 1,500 metres.\n\n北部平原与低洼盆地\n\nThe north is characterised by plains and basins at lower elevation. The Sokoto Plain in the northwest, at about 200 to 300 metres, consists of sand, clay, sandstone and limestone. The Chad Basin, also called the Bornu Plain, lies in the northeast around Lake Chad and is composed mainly of sand and clay. Both are low, flat areas with sedimentary surfaces. Between them, the broad stepped plateaus and granite mountains of northern Nigeria form a more varied landscape. Thus the overall pattern is a south-to-north transition from coastal and deltaic lowlands, through central uplands and eastern mountains, to northern plains and basins, although the boundaries between these units are not uniform."
    },
    {
      "heading": "地质构造与矿产基础",
      "text": "Most of Nigeria sits on a Precambrian basement complex. That basement carries traces of the Liberian (ca 2500 Ma), Eburnean (ca 2000 Ma) and Pan-African (ca 600 Ma) tectonic events, which makes it a polycyclic assemblage. Geologists usually divide it into three broad units: the migmatite-gneiss complex, the schist belts and the older granites (Migmatite–Gneiss Complex, the Schist Belts and the Older Granites). The schist belts, which contain metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, are the most extensive of these units and constitute about 60% of the Nigerian Basement Complex. The migmatite-gneiss complex is older still, with its rocks generally dated to the Archaean to Paleoproterozoic. In the south-west, the gneisses are intruded by granite bodies and pegmatite dykes, and the Neoproterozoic reworking around 600 Ma is linked to much of the granite emplacement with the migmatite-gneiss-granite association tied to Neoproterozoic tectono-thermal activity around 600 Ma.\n\nThe sedimentary record of the country begins with a rift. The Benue Trough is a Cretaceous intracontinental rift that stretches across central Nigeria. Its origin is tied to the separation of Africa from South America, which opened the South Atlantic and triggered the stretching and subsidence of the crust a unique Cretaceous rift whose origin is related to the opening of the South Atlantic and the continental separation of Africa from South America. The trough runs about 800 km in a NNE–SSW direction and is roughly 150 km wide extends NNE–SSW for about 800 km in length and 150 km in width. Published figures for its sediment fill vary: one source gives up to 6,000 m of Cretaceous – Tertiary sediments, while an earlier estimate gives about 5,000 m of sediments and volcanic rocks. The depositional history was not uniform. The early fill was largely marine, and deposition was terminated by an episode of deformation in the Santonian. Afterwards, deltaic deposits spread across the trough, and continental sedimentation persisted until the end of the Cretaceous Following this deformation the marine sediments were eroded and deltaic sediments spread throughout the trough.\n\nThe southern end of the Benue Trough merges with the Niger Delta basin, which is the country's most important petroleum province. The trough continues inland from the petroleum-bearing Niger Delta basin and stretches nearly 800 km to northeastern Nigeria. The Niger Delta sediments are younger than those of the trough. Its fill is mainly Tertiary, with deposits extending into the Quaternary the Tertiary sediments in the southern segments range from Tertiary to Quaternary. Its thick succession of clastic sediments, with organic-rich marine shales as source rocks, sandstones as reservoirs and shales as seals, forms the basic system that generates oil and natural gas. Deposition over several kilometres of sediment, combined with subsidence and burial, brought these source rocks into the temperature window for hydrocarbon generation. The depth of the basin is therefore central to the location of its oil and gas, which lie mostly in the delta and its offshore extension.\n\nCentral Nigeria contains a different kind of geology, centred on the Jos Plateau. The plateau is a high tableland with an average elevation of about 1,280 metres, and composed of eroded gneiss formations with granite intrusions, the plateau features extinct volcanic cones and crater lakes. The Younger Granites here are of Jurassic age, and they form ring-shaped intrusive complexes. These complexes are rich in accessory minerals of zircon, monazite, ilmenite, xenotime, thorite, and pyrochlore containing high concentrations of thorium and uranium.\n\nThe tin and niobium-tantalum ores of the plateau are closely linked to this granitic magmatism. Cassiterite (tin oxide) occurs in quartz veins; one deposit carries cassiterite and sphalerite with minor galena, chalcopyrite and wolframite. Columbite, which is an ore of niobium and tantalum, occurs in a different setting, as an accessory mineral within albite-biotite granites. These minerals concentrate in the late, fluid-rich stage of crystallising granitic magma, when incompatible elements are excluded from early-forming minerals and accumulate in residual melts and hydrothermal fluids. Weathering and erosion of these rocks then released the heavy minerals into streams, where they were recovered as alluvial placers. The economic value of the columbite depends on its composition, since as tantalum is more valuable than niobium the Ta:Nb ratio of the columbite is critical.\n\nMining on the plateau began early in the colonial period. Although Africans had extracted tin and iron from river and stream beds on the plateau long before the arrival of Europeans, not until 1904, when the British commenced large-scale operations, did the region's immense tin deposits begin to be fully exploited. Mining of the columbite deposits followed later, and the world's largest known deposits of columbite, an ore of niobium found associated with tin, have also been exploited since the 1940s. Decades of processing left large volumes of tailings, which are rich in these radioactive minerals and are mostly dumped haphazardly in the environment."
    },
    {
      "heading": "水系：尼日尔河与贝努埃河",
      "text": "Nigeria's river network is built around two large rivers. The Niger rises far upstream, in the Guinea highlands, and reaches Nigeria from the northwest. At Lokoja, the River Niger, flowing from the northwest, meets the River Benue, which comes from the northeast. This junction forms a Y-shaped confluence, and the same shape is depicted on the national coat of arms, where the two silver wavy bands are read as the Niger and Benue joining to unify the country. Below Lokoja the combined flow runs south toward the Gulf of Guinea, where it divides into a maze of channels in the Niger Delta.\n\nThe Benue is the larger of the two tributaries in terms of length. Its headwaters lie on the Adamawa Plateau in northern Cameroon. From there it flows west, passes through Garoua and the Lagdo Reservoir, enters Nigeria south of the Mandara mountains, and continues through Jimeta, Ibi and Makurdi before meeting the Niger at Lokoja. The river is roughly 1,440 km long, and its basin covers about 320,000 to 340,000 km². Its average discharge at Lokoja is about 3,480 m³ per second, but flows vary widely through the year. At Makurdi, recorded flows have ranged from about 240 m³ per second in the dry season to roughly 12,000 m³ per second at peak, a spread of around fiftyfold. Flooding in the Niger–Benue system is commonly described as occurring in two pulses, which shapes the timing of floodplain farming and fishing along both channels.\n\nSeveral independent rivers in the south reach the Atlantic without joining the Niger–Benue system. The Cross River is the largest of them. It rises in the highlands of Cameroon, where it is called the Manyu, and crosses back and forth over the border before entering Nigeria near Ikom. It then runs south through Cross River State and empties through a broad estuary near Calabar, which is about 24 km wide at its mouth. Its lower course passes through rainforest, oil-palm bush and mangrove swamps. The Imo River, by contrast, is much shorter. It flows about 240 km from the Okigwe highlands of Imo State through Abia, Rivers and Akwa Ibom states, and its estuary is roughly 40 km wide. Other coastal rivers, including the Ogun, Osun, Benin and Qua Iboe, also drain directly into the Gulf of Guinea. Because these basins are small and steep compared with the Niger–Benue system, their discharge depends more directly on local rainfall, and they are seasonal in their upper reaches.\n\nThe northern tributaries are fed largely by the Jos Plateau, the high ground in central Nigeria that acts as a water divide. The Kaduna River rises on the plateau's western slopes, southwest of Jos, and flows through Kaduna State and along the border of Niger State. It joins the Niger near Pategi after a course of roughly 550 km. The Karami and N'gell rivers also drain the plateau toward the Niger. The Gongola, the principal tributary of the Benue, rises on the eastern slopes of the Jos Plateau and runs northeast across the Gongola Basin before turning south and then southeast. It is joined by the Hawal and eventually enters the Benue opposite the town of Numan, after a course of about 530 km. Much of the Gongola basin lies in dry savanna, and its upper course and most of its tributaries are seasonal, filling rapidly in August and September. The Kiri and Dadin Kowa dams now regulate parts of its lower course, and the river's floodplains carry fertile alluvial soils that support both irrigation and grazing.\n\nTaken together, the Niger and Benue form the backbone of the country's surface hydrology: they carry most of the internal drainage, supply the largest share of the water used for irrigation and domestic needs, and link the interior to the coast through the delta."
    },
    {
      "heading": "乍得湖与北部内陆水体",
      "text": "Lake Chad lies on Nigeria's northeastern margin, and the Nigerian part of its basin is concentrated in Borno, Adamawa and Yobe States. Although the lake is a closed basin, in contrast to several other brackish or high-saline inland seas, such as the Caspian and Dead Seas, it is still nearly entirely a freshwater lake. Its depth is shallow, with a maximum depth of 2 m, so small changes in water volume alter its extent sharply. The lake is one of the drainage-basin features of the Sahel, and the Nigerian section of the wider catchment is dominated by wetlands and floodplains rather than permanent open water.\n\nThe lake's area has contracted dramatically. Between 1963 and 2013, the lake lost 90 percent of its water mass, shrinking from 25,000 km² to 2,500 km². Other estimates are lower: one account puts the present surface at roughly 1,350 km², and the figure varies with the season and with the year of measurement. The inflows explain much of the vulnerability. The Chari and Logone rivers contribute about 95% of the total inflow of Lake Chad, while the Yobe River contributes less than 2.5%. Because the Yobe is the principal river that crosses Nigerian territory toward the lake, the Nigerian side depends on rainfall and seasonal flooding rather than on a large river supply. Rainfall variability can produce excessive rains that refill the lake and cause flooding.\n\nThe causes of decline are debated in detail, but reports agree on several factors. Reduced and erratic rainfall, together with high temperatures, leads to high rates of lake water evaporation. Upstream development has also reduced flow: dams and reservoirs built on the tributaries that feed the lake, along with population increase, have contributed to the lake's decline. Some experts add overgrazing, population growth, climate change and insecurity, which led to a decline in vegetation and increased desertification.\n\nThe shrinkage has affected the livelihoods of people who depend on the lake. At least 40 million people live in the region, most of whom depend on the lake for livelihoods like fishing, farming and subsistence living. As the lake receded, vast areas of floodplain and wetland that supported diverse plant communities and provided grazing for cattle were lost. In Borno State, farms and livestock rearing have in many places become unviable, and some residents have migrated southwards in search of alternative livelihoods. The remaining water and pasture are contested: the remaining patches of lake and marsh are increasingly fought over by competing communities of fishermen, farmers, and herders. Some reports go further and say that some affected people have joined the Islamist militia Boko Haram, which pays fighters. A decade-old environmental audit also reported a correlation between the lake's shrinkage and insecurity in the northeast, though the strength of that link is contested in the literature.\n\nBeyond the lake itself, northern Nigeria contains smaller inland waters. The Ngadda River feeds Lake Alau, a natural water storage reservoir near Maiduguri. Along the Yedseram River and the lake's shores, cattle rearing and poultry farming take place in the surrounding countryside, as does fishing. The Chad Basin National Park, covering 2,258 sq.km, is split into three sectors in Borno and Yobe States, and its wetlands and oases are regarded as important for mitigating the desertification process in north-eastern Nigeria. Seasonal wetlands and dry-season pools also supply grazing, irrigation water and drinking water for cattle. The lake provides small-scale farmers with access to water for irrigation, and the shrinking of the lake and the spread of desertification have caused many people who relied on it for irrigation, farming and drinking water for cattle to leave the area.\n\nGroundwater is an important complement to surface water. Within the Lake Chad Basin, the unconfined Quaternary aquifer offers permanent and easy access to water resources. This transboundary aquifer is shared by Chad, Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon and extends over about 500,000 km². Shallow groundwater therefore supports settlements when surface water is scarce.\n\nSalinity and playa-type depressions occur in the drier northeast. Where evaporation exceeds inflow, seasonal ponds and shallow depressions concentrate salts as they dry, and reeds in the saltier northern parts of the lake reflect this pattern: reeds mainly grow in the north where the salinity is high. Management of the basin is shared among states. The Lake Chad Basin Commission was created in 1964 by the four countries bordering Lake Chad: Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria. Its aims include regulating the utilization of water and other natural resources in the basin, and in 2012 heads of state of the member countries signed the Lake Chad Water Charter."
    },
    {
      "heading": "气候类型与降水格局",
      "text": "Nigeria's climate is tropical overall, but its north–south extent creates a strong gradient. The Nigerian Meteorological Agency groups the country into three zones: the tropical monsoon climate in the southern part, the tropical savannah climate, and the Sahelian hot and semi-arid climate in the northern parts of the country. A Köppen-based scheme by other researchers recognizes four distinct zones: Tropical Wet Climate, Tropical Continental Climate, Montane Variety and Semi-Arid Climate. These schemes are broadly consistent, and they map onto the Köppen climate classification categories of humid tropical (Af or Am), savanna (Aw) and hot semi-arid (BSh) climates. Rainfall is the element most often treated as decisive, because of its direct bearing on agriculture.\n\nAnnual precipitation falls sharply from the coast toward the interior. Parts of the Niger Delta receive over 4,000 millimetres or 160 inches of annual rainfall, while the southeast receives between 2,000 and 3,000 millimetres. Estimates for the north diverge considerably. One popular source gives about 500-800 mm of rainfall annually for the north, while another puts annual totals there usually less than 20 inches (500 mm). The gap reflects differences in station networks, averaging periods and regional definitions, so the national mean and the northern totals should be treated as approximate.\n\nThe rainy season is progressively longer and more intense from north to south. In the north, the rainy season lasts only four months, from June to September; in the centre, around Abuja, it runs from April to October; and in the far south it extends from March into November in the southeast. The onset follows a northward march: from March to May the rains increase in intensity and frequency and gradually move to the north, until they affect all the country in June. Withdrawal runs in the reverse direction, with rains ending in mid-September in the far north and lingering into November in the far south.\n\nThe southern pattern is more complex than a single wet season. The south experiences a double rainfall maxima with two high peaks. A first wet season from March to June is followed by a short dry spell in August, often called the \"August break,\" then a second, shorter rainy period in September. Some researchers also describe a 'little dry season' in the month of August across the country as a whole.\n\nThe dry season is shaped by the harmattan, a dry northeasterly wind. Its origin lies in pressure contrasts: during the Northern Hemisphere winter, high-pressure systems form over the Sahara, pushing dry air southwards. As the air moves, it picks up fine dust particles, which reduce visibility and suppress cloud formation. Its position is governed by the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity, the boundary between moist maritime air from the Atlantic and the dry continental air from the Sahara. Timing varies by source: harmattan is usually from December to January, although other estimates place it from late November to mid-March. Its effects are mainly climatic and agricultural: reduced humidity limits rainfall, lowers the risk of flooding, and allows farmers to harvest crops such as yam, maize, and sorghum.\n\nTemperature and humidity follow the same geographic logic. Dry-season heat is most intense in the north, where midday temperatures can sometimes reach 100 °F (38 °C). The northern interior is hot through much of the year, and most of northern Nigeria has a tropical dry climate or Sahel, with very hot temperatures year-round except during the brief rainy season. Humidity contrasts sharply between seasons and regions: in January, humidity is below 25% in the north and a little over 60% in the south. Within the southern humid belt, midday temperatures in the wettest areas typically stay moderate, and the southeastern coast is noted for rainfall that reaches about 330 cm a year."
    },
    {
      "heading": "植被与生态带",
      "text": "Vegetation in Nigeria changes in a broad south-to-north sequence that follows the rainfall gradient. Commonly used schemes list mangrove and coastal vegetation, freshwater swamp forest, lowland rainforest, derived savanna, Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and Sahel savanna, and the zonation draws on the classification published by Keay in 1949. Montane vegetation on the Jos Plateau and other highlands is treated separately because altitude, not rainfall alone, controls it. The boundaries between these belts are gradual, so adjacent zones usually form mosaics rather than sharp lines.\n\n南部森林带\n\nThe southernmost belt is mangrove forest along the Gulf of Guinea coast and across the Niger Delta, where salt-tolerant trees grow in tidal water. Further inland, beyond the reach of tides, freshwater swamp forest occupies low ground that is flooded for much of the year. The sources describe the flood period as lasting eight or nine months in places, so this zone is among the most waterlogged in the country and is closely tied to wetland hydrology. Lowland rainforest lies north of the swamps. It is a dense evergreen forest with tall trees arranged in three layers, the emergent layer rising above 36 metres, and annual rainfall in its core is usually above 2000 millimetres. Oil palms regenerate readily in disturbed forest and are a distinctive feature of parts of this zone.\n\n中北部稀树草原带\n\nNorth of the rainforest, the vegetation becomes savanna, meaning grassland with scattered trees whose crowns do not close into a continuous canopy. The Guinea savanna is the largest ecological zone, though estimates of its share of national territory differ between sources, ranging from almost half to more than half. It is generally more humid than the zones to its north, with rainfall often cited between about 1000 and 1400 millimetres a year, and it has tall grasses and short deciduous trees. The Sudan savanna lies further north, receiving roughly 500 to 1000 millimetres of rain. Its vegetation is dominated by short grasses with acacia and baobab trees, and the zone is marked by high rainfall variability, frequent droughts and low soil fertility.\n\n北部萨赫勒边缘地带\n\nThe Sahel savanna occupies the driest margin, found mainly in the far northeast and northwest of the country, including parts of Borno and Yobe states. Annual rainfall is often given as below 600 millimetres, falling in a wet season of only three to four months, while the dry season can exceed eight months. The vegetation is sparse and depends heavily on rain that arrives unevenly. It consists mainly of hardy grasses, discontinuous shrubs and widely spaced thorny trees such as acacia species, with trees that are drought-resistant and rarely exceed about nine metres. Because growth is so tightly linked to the timing and volume of rainfall, a run of poor seasons quickly reduces cover, and this zone is the most sensitive part of the country to fluctuations in precipitation and to land degradation in general.\n\n结构差异与森林向草原的过渡\n\nThe contrast between rainforest and savanna is structural as well as floristic. Forest is dominated by tall, mostly evergreen trees, with little grass in the understorey, and fire seldom penetrates it because the humid canopy keeps the ground moist. Savanna, by contrast, has a continuous grass layer that dries out in the long dry season, and fire is a regular part of its dynamics. Savanna plants have adapted to these conditions with deep roots, thin leaves and bark or underground structures that allow them to survive burning. The forest–savanna boundary is therefore a true ecotone in which fire-tolerant savanna species and fire-sensitive forest species coexist. Studies of this boundary have found that its position responds both to rainfall, which in the study areas ranged roughly from 1000 to 1600 millimetres a year, and to human activity. Much of the derived savanna of southern Nigeria has been created by felling, clearing and burning forest, so the belt has moved southward over time at the expense of forest. This process is a principal cause of forest loss and a driver of biodiversity decline in the region.\n\n土壤、地形与人类利用的相互作用\n\nVegetation types are shaped as much by soil and terrain as by climate. Lateritic soils are widespread in the interior zones, and the Guinea savanna also contains productive lava soils, such as those near the Biu Plateau. Along river courses the soils are typically sandy and often infertile, which supports distinctive riparian vegetation. On the highlands, altitude and cooler conditions allow montane species to grow, and the Jos Plateau is the best-known example. Human use is now an equally powerful influence. Forest clearance for timber, farming and settlement has reduced the natural extent of the rainforest, while grazing and periodic burning maintain grass cover in the savanna. Savanna grasslands support livestock and crop cultivation, but overgrazing and repeated fires can thin the vegetation and expose soil to erosion. Recognising these interactions is essential for ecological restoration and for planning land use in belts where vegetation is closely tied to rainfall and soil quality."
    },
    {
      "heading": "海岸线、三角洲与红树林",
      "text": "Nigeria's coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea and is about 853 kilometres long. It is generally low and flat, and the shoreline is shaped by barrier beaches, estuaries and lagoons. The Lagos coast, which runs from the city toward the Lekki peninsula, is a barrier-lagoon system. A remote-sensing study of shoreline change from 1973 to 2019 divided it into three sections: the older Marina and Bar Beach area of Lagos Island, the Eko Atlantic reclamation zone, and the Lekki peninsula. The first section was relatively stable, with about 77% of it eroding at an average of roughly 1.7 metres per year. The reclaimed section eroded at a much faster rate before and after the Eko Atlantic project, so the engineering works there have changed the coastline's behaviour rather than simply fixing it. Development along the lagoon edge, including ports and new housing estates, is one of the main reasons the barrier is under pressure.\n\nThe Niger Delta, which occupies the southern part of the country, is a low, arc-shaped delta with a maximum elevation of only about 3 metres above mean sea level on its sandy barrier islands. The barrier islands cover roughly 2,000 square kilometres and are cut by tidal channels that let seawater and tides reach a large mangrove swamp of roughly 7,000 square kilometres. Behind the mangroves lies a belt of freshwater swamp. Much of this terrain is a network of distributary channels, creeks and small streams, so the delta looks like a mesh of water and land rather than a single trunk river with a fan of channels. Some freshwater swamps are flooded for three to five months of the year. The mangrove belt runs parallel to the coast and extends inland for an estimated 15 to 45 kilometres.\n\nThe mangroves and swamps perform important ecological and protective functions. Mangrove roots trap sediment, reduce wave energy and buffer the coast from storm surges, and they also serve as fish nurseries and supply firewood, construction timber and traditional medicines. Because the delta is so rich in these functions, the disappearance of mangrove cover leaves settlements more exposed to flooding. Satellite studies have recorded clear losses of mangrove cover in parts of the delta, with some local government areas showing losses of more than 40% over the study period. Human activity is the main cause, including oil exploration and pollution, land reclamation, infrastructure construction and the spread of the invasive nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), which replaces mangrove stands. Oil spills are especially damaging because a substantial share of spill events have occurred in highly sensitive mangrove areas.\n\nCoastal erosion and sediment deposition work in opposite directions along the same coast. Waves and tidal currents remove sand from exposed beaches, while river sediment deposited at the mouths of rivers and in the delta builds new land. The balance has shifted in recent decades. Sediment supply from rivers has been reduced by dams built on upstream tributaries, and longshore transport has been disrupted by harbour breakwaters and reclamation. Sand mining along the coast and the filling of lagoon margins have further worsened flooding in some Lagos neighbourhoods. Rising sea level adds to these pressures: the lowest-lying coastal land, including much of the delta and parts of Lagos, is at greatest risk of inundation, and the mangrove belt is the natural buffer that partly protects inland communities. Projections for Lagos suggest sea-level rise of roughly 54 centimetres by 2100 under a moderate emissions scenario and about 75 centimetres under a high one, which would significantly extend flooding into low-lying urban areas. Protecting and restoring mangroves, controlling sand extraction and planning the lagoon edge are therefore central to reducing coastal risk."
    },
    {
      "heading": "自然资源：石油、天然气与固体矿产",
      "text": "Nigeria's fossil fuel wealth lies mainly in the Niger Delta, a sedimentary basin built from thick accumulations of river-borne sediment. The Niger Delta underlies an area of about 256,000 km2, and in the basin's deepest part the sediment column is more than 10 km thick in the basin depocenter. This thickness allowed both source rocks and reservoir sands to accumulate in sequence. The petroleum system is relatively simple. Hydrocarbons were generated in marine shales of the Akata Formation and the lower Agbada Formation, then moved into the sandstones of the Agbada Formation, where most fields are found. Many of these accumulations are held in rollover anticlines associated with growth faults, although relatively rare stratigraphic traps also contain hydrocarbons. Exploration has so far produced large volumes of crude oil. A U.S. Geological Survey assessment from 1999 counted 34.5 billion barrels of recoverable oil and 93.8 trillion cubic feet of recoverable gas as discovered. A later official figure from the Nigerian Upstream Petroleum Regulatory Commission put total oil and condensate reserves at 37.28 billion barrels.\n\nGas reserves are larger than those of oil in energy terms. The same regulator reported a record 210.54 trillion cubic feet (TCF), and a later estimate placed the total at 215.19 trillion cubic feet on 1 January 2026. The majority of the natural gas reserves are located in the Niger Delta. Gas is classed as associated, when it is dissolved in crude oil, or non-associated, when it comes from dedicated gas reservoirs. In the 2025 declaration, Associated Gas Reserves were about 101 TCF and Non-Associated Gas Reserves were about 110 TCF. Much of the non-associated resource lies in remote offshore settings. Production has been far smaller than the reserve base. One source gives output of 8 billion cubic feet per day, with 3 Bcf/d exported as liquefied natural gas (LNG), and 1.5 Bcf/d used domestically. The main export facility is the Nigeria LNG plant on Bonny Island. Associated gas has long been a problem, because most of the nation's natural gas production has been flared or re-injected to enhance greater crude oil recovery. Some reserves also remain stranded, since their location makes them non-commercial and difficult to exploit.\n\nBecause the hydrocarbon resources are concentrated in one region, their economic weight is unusually high. A 2005 article by K. K. Aaron stated that oil and gas resources of the Niger Delta account for over 85% of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP), over 95% of the national budget. This concentration shapes the national economic structure, tax revenue, and regional politics. It also means that environmental damage from extraction falls heavily on the delta's communities.\n\nSolid minerals are concentrated on the Jos Plateau in central Nigeria. The plateau is composed of eroded gneiss formations with granite intrusions, and it contains extinct volcanic cones and crater lakes. Tin is mined mainly as cassiterite, which has historically produced substantial tonnages of residual / eluvial cassiterite derived from Jurassic ring dyke complexes. Columbite, an ore of niobium and tantalum, occurs in a different setting. Primary Columbite - occurs as an accessory mineral within albite-biotite granites. Because tantalum is more valuable than niobium, the tantalum-to-niobium ratio of the ore strongly affects its worth. The ore is usually accompanied by tin. The columbite:cassiterite ratio in the columbite granites is usually between 10:1 and 20:1. Smaller quantities of tantalite, wolfram, kaolin, zircon, and uranium are also produced, as noted in Smaller quantities of tantalite, wolfram, kaolin, zircon, uranium, lead, iron ore, gold, and silver are also mined in the area.\n\nTin extraction on the plateau predates colonial rule. Africans had extracted tin and iron from river and stream beds on the plateau long before the arrival of Europeans, but the large-scale phase began in 1904 under British administration. Output grew rapidly. Tin production increased rapidly from 1.36 tons in 1904 to 5,573 tons ten years later, reaching its peak production level of 15,842 tons in 1943. Columbite was exploited from the 1940s, and the world's largest known deposits of columbite, an ore of niobium found associated with tin, have also been exploited since the 1940s. After the Second World War, and with the rise of oil production, the sector declined. Tin mining witnessed decline after the Second World War and the discovery of crude oil in Nigeria and was reported to attain an all-time low in 1985. Mechanized mining had left many abandoned mine pits and ponds that still mark the landscape, and their restoration remains an unresolved problem (ecological restoration). In recent decades, artisanal small-scale miners have dominated a revival of activity that is often informal and unregulated.\n\nAgricultural land, water, and forests form the renewable side of the resource base. Savanna soils in the north support grain cultivation, while the wetter south supports tree crops and mixed farming. Surface water and groundwater supply irrigation, drinking water, and fisheries, although their availability depends on the rainy season and on the reliability of upstream inflows. Forests provide timber, fuelwood, and protection for soils and watersheds. Their extent has declined under clearing for farmland, settlements, and charcoal production, and this loss reduces both soil stability and the capacity of land to hold water (deforestation). The long-term value of these renewable resources therefore depends on managing land use alongside the extraction of non-renewable minerals."
    },
    {
      "heading": "人口分布与城乡格局",
      "text": "Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa. Worldometer's 2026 estimate puts its population at about 242.4 million, and the growth rate is about 2.06% a year. The country's last official census was in 2006, when it recorded 140.4 million people, so every later figure is a projection built on growth-rate assumptions. Its population density is high for the region, at roughly 262 people per square kilometre if the 2026 estimate is divided by the national area of about 923,769 km².\n\nPopulation is very unevenly spread. By raw headcount, the North-West is the largest geopolitical zone: its 2006 census population was about 35.9 million, and its 2022 estimate is about 60.2 million, at roughly 166 people per km². The North-East is more sparsely settled, with an estimated 30.5 million people in 2022 and a density of about 112 per km². Density peaks in the South-West. A study of COVID-19 cases mapped Lagos at about 7,777 people per km², with the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) also among the densest areas, while states such as Bauchi and Yobe appeared as low-density areas. The contrast is therefore less a simple north–south split than a gradient from the crowded southwestern coast and middle belt toward the dry northeastern and northwestern interior. Regional sources also disagree on zone-level shares, so these figures should be read as approximate.\n\nUrbanization has risen rapidly. Worldometer gives an urban share of 55.8% for 2026, or about 135 million urban residents, while Wikipedia's country summary gives 54.3% with an annual urbanization rate of about 3.92%. Historical patterns point the same way: in 1990 the Yoruba-dominated South-West was still the most urbanized part of the country, while the middle belt was the least. Lagos is the largest urban area, with a 2025 estimate of about 12.8 million people. Its population grew from about 7.25 million in 2000 to about 11.0 million in 2013, a rate of roughly 3% a year, and in the 1970s its growth rate was estimated at nearly 14% annually. Abuja, which replaced Lagos as the seat of government in the early 1990s, had 776,298 residents at the 2006 census. Its current population is hard to pin down: a Worldometer estimate gives about 1.37 million for 2025, while a commercial projection gives about 2.06 million for 2026. Smaller cities also grew, but the national balance remains heavily weighted toward a few large metropolitan centres such as cities in the urban corridors.\n\nPopulation distribution follows several interacting factors. Rainfall and soil shape agricultural potential: the wetter south supports denser rural settlement and tree-crop farming, while the drier north relies on grain cultivation and supports thinner rural populations, although the North-West's large population shows that dry-zone farmland can still sustain many people. Access to transport and markets pulls people toward ports and corridors. Lagos's location on a coastal lagoon with a major port drew migrants from across the country, and the move of government functions to Abuja has pulled population into the FCT's satellite towns, where Gwagwalada grew rapidly after 1992. Migration from rural areas to cities, combined with high fertility, drives much of this change. Urban services and housing often lag behind this growth, so the rapid expansion of Lagos and Abuja is closely tied to pressure on infrastructure, housing and land, a point taken up in urban-planning debates.\n\nThe statistics behind these patterns have clear limits. The lack of a census since 2006 means that current state and city figures depend on modelling, and different agencies produce estimates that can differ by a large margin, as the Abuja figures show. Urban definitions also vary, which affects comparisons between cities and rural areas. Better census data would sharpen the understanding of demographic change and of how population, rainfall and transport shape settlement patterns."
    },
    {
      "heading": "族群与语言的地理分布",
      "text": "Nigeria is commonly described as one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Africa, but the exact number of groups depends on how they are counted. Estimates range from about 250 ethnic groups in some general references to roughly 370 in others, and the country's languages are counted at around 520 living indigenous languages. Demographic estimates from 2018 put the Hausa at about 25% of the population, the Yoruba at 21% and the Igbo at 18%, with Fulani, Ibibio, Kanuri, Tiv, Ijaw and others making up most of the remainder. The Hausa and Fulani are treated as one category in many sources, but they originated as distinct peoples. The Hausa developed agricultural and trading city-states such as Kano, Katsina and Zaria, while the Fulani were largely herders who, in the early nineteenth century, led a jihad that created the Sokoto Caliphate and linked the two populations politically and religiously.\n\nThese three large groups have distinct core regions. Hausa-Fulani communities dominate the north, especially Sokoto, Kano, Katsina, Kaduna, Jigawa and Zamfara. The Yoruba are concentrated in the southwest, in states such as Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Osun, Ondo and Ekiti, and have a long tradition of dense, city-based settlement organised around local kingdoms. The Igbo occupy the southeast, including Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo, and extend into parts of the Niger Delta. Between these core areas lies the Middle Belt, a broad zone of plateaus, river valleys and savannah that holds the greatest concentration of smaller groups. Tiv, Nupe, Igala, Idoma, Berom and many others live in states such as Benue, Plateau, Nasarawa, Taraba and Kogi. The northeast is home to Kanuri and other groups, while the Niger Delta hosts Ijaw, Urhobo and Itsekiri communities. These boundaries are not sealed: Lagos contains substantial populations of every major group, and Kano has long-established Igbo and Yoruba trading communities. Urbanisation has made the distinction between \"indigene\" and \"settler\" a central issue in many cities, which matters for access to land, local office and public services.\n\nThe linguistic map is even more complex. Ethnologue lists 520 living indigenous languages, most belonging to the Niger-Congo family (about 395), with the Afro-Asiatic family (about 125) concentrated in the north, and smaller numbers of Nilo-Saharan languages. Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are the most widely spoken and are recognised as major languages, and they are used in government broadcasting, education and some official settings in particular regions. Many smaller languages have few speakers and have never been fully documented, and some are classified as endangered. English is the sole official language of the federation. It was adopted during British colonial rule and retained after independence, partly because the government wanted to promote national unity without privileging any one indigenous language. Nigerian Pidgin, an English-based creole, functions as a widely used lingua franca, particularly in urban markets, the media and informal communication, and speaker estimates for both English and Pidgin vary widely. Language choice in the home is also uneven: a 2022 online survey of 1,600 adults found Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo to be the most common home languages, but its small sample and online method limit how far its results can be generalised. In the northeast, only a very small share of people speak English as a first language.\n\nReligion follows a broadly north–south pattern but is not strictly regional. A 2010 Pew Research Center survey estimated that about 49.3% of Nigerians were Christian and 48.8% Muslim, with about 1.9% following indigenous religions or having no affiliation. Islam predominates across most northern states, and twelve northern states adopted Sharia criminal law in the early 2000s, which has been a source of political tension. Christianity is strongest in the south, particularly among the Igbo and in the Niger Delta, while Protestant and Aladura churches are prominent among the Yoruba. Yet both faiths have significant minorities outside their core zones: a sizeable Christian community lives in many northern cities and the Middle Belt, and a considerable Muslim population lives in the southwest, including Lagos. Ethnicity and religion are closely linked in practice. Hausa-Fulani communities are overwhelmingly Muslim, Igbo communities are overwhelmingly Christian, and Yoruba communities are religiously mixed, which means that religious and ethnic identities often reinforce one another in politics. The decline of traditional belief over the twentieth century is documented in colonial and early independence censuses, in which the share identifying with indigenous religions fell from around half in 1931 to about one-fifth in 1963.\n\nEthnic and linguistic distribution is closely connected to the federal structure and political representation. Nigeria has 36 states and a Federal Capital Territory, and state boundaries, local government areas and the six geopolitical zones are used to allocate offices, revenue and federal appointments. Because ethnic groups are unevenly distributed among these units, electoral competition often takes an ethnic or regional form, and debates over \"zoning\" of the presidency and other offices reflect that arrangement. Research on this subject faces serious data limitations. Official population counts do not provide reliable ethnic or religious breakdowns, and no census has asked about religion since 1963. The 1963 census itself is widely regarded as irregular in its counting, and many figures used today come from surveys such as Pew, national demographic and health surveys, or from older colonial records. Ethnologue's language counts are sensitive to the distinction between language and dialect, and the counts for smaller groups depend on field research that is uneven across regions. Researchers therefore combine census fragments, survey samples, linguistic fieldwork and qualitative studies, and their conclusions often differ according to the method and the classification adopted."
    },
    {
      "heading": "主要城市与首都迁移",
      "text": "Lagos: Coastal Port and Commercial Core\n\nThe port, which sits on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean, is the largest city in Nigeria and, by some calculations, the African continent as well. Population estimates vary widely, from 12 to over 20 million people. The city's landscape is shaped by heavy rainfall, which has produced a swampy region of rivers, creeks, coastal sandbars, and lagoons. A channel linking the lagoon to the ocean separates the islands from the mainland and forms the harbour, which gives Lagos its sheltered port conditions.\n\nThe port's economic weight is considerable. The Apapa complex is the leading port by cargo volume in Nigeria, and over half of the country's seaborne trade passes through it. Because it also serves as a transshipment point, the port handles goods for landlocked neighbours such as Chad and Niger. Lagos generates roughly a tenth of national output, generating around 10% of the country's GDP. Its transport links include a railway to the interior that was begun in the early 20th century, and the city is now the terminus of three Trans-African Highway routes. Built-up areas expand to the north, following the expressway to Abeokuta and Ibadan, and development has begun to extend into neighbouring Ogun State.\n\nAbuja and the 1991 Transfer\n\nConcern about Lagos prompted the federal government to plan a new capital in the 1970s. A panel was set up in 1975 to examine whether Lagos could continue as both a federal and a state capital, and it recommended a new Federal Capital Territory outside Lagos. The proclamation followed in February 1976. Lagos had well over four million people and built on multiple islands, had little land available for expansion by the 1970s, and fears about its exposure during the civil war also weighed on the decision.\n\nSite selection was systematic. Abuja was selected from amongst 33 possible sites. The criteria included centrality, healthy, climate, land availability and use, water supply, multi-access possibilities, security, and ethnic accord. The site was also seen as a neutral site on the cultural, religious, and political border between the mostly Christian South and the Muslim North. Official transfer came on 12 December 1991, replacing Lagos, though the latter remains the country's most populous city. Some accounts give 21 December for the formal change, so the date should be read with care.\n\nThe move was contested. The Yoruba politician Obafemi Awolowo defended their claims against the move of the Capital from Lagos. The land was also already occupied. Abuja was a site in the center of the country inhabited by several ethnic groups like the Gbagyi, Koro, Gade, and Gwandara, and there were more than 800 villages where the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) stands today. The Gbagyi continue to fight for the land, and the displacement remains a lasting dispute.\n\nAbuja itself was built as a planned city. It was built mainly in the 1980s. Its master plan was developed by a consortium of three American firms which won the worldwide competitive bidding. Development proceeded in phases, and by 2014, however, only two phases, the central business district and one of the major residential districts, have been completed. Its unofficial metropolitan area has a population of well over three million and comprises the fourth largest urban area in Nigeria, surpassed only by Lagos, Kano and Ibadan.\n\nNorthern Cities: Kano and Kaduna\n\nKano has a much longer urban history. Kano's origins as an urban center date back to the first millennium AD, when it developed as one of the seven historic city-states of the Hausa Kingdom. In the fifteenth century, Rumfa is credited with building the original Great Mosque and the old city walls. After British forces took the city in 1903, it was made the administrative centre of Northern Nigeria, but it was replaced as the centre of government by Kaduna. A rail connection to the coast in 1911 later tied Kano to the main port cities of Lagos and Port Harcourt. Today Kano remains the commercial capital of northern Nigeria, a key trading centre linking countries in west, north and central Africa.\n\nKaduna was founded as a colonial administrative town. Its site was chosen by Frederick Lugard along the Lagos-Kano Railway, and building began in 1913. In 1917 it replaced Zungeru, 100 miles (160 km) west-southwest, as the capital of the Northern Provinces; it also served as capital of the Northern Region from 1954 to 1967. The city later became an industrial and financial centre, producing textiles, food processing, light manufacturing, steel and aluminum products, and petrochemicals, although its textile sector has declined. Its population as of 2024, the city has an estimated population of 1.2 million people.\n\nLand Use, Housing and Infrastructure Pressure\n\nRapid population growth has strained all of these centres. In the 1970s and 1980s Lagos experienced a population boom not seen before. The city became overcrowded and living conditions poor. The island core in particular contains a network of overcrowded slums alongside its business and market districts. Flooding and traffic congestion are also recurrent problems, linked to the city's low, waterlogged coastal location.\n\nAbuja's growth has taken a different form. Migration into the planned capital has produced satellite settlements, including Karu Urban Area, Suleja, Gwagwalada, Lugbe, Kuje, which have spread beyond the planned core. Kaduna has also grown quickly, and its population has risen because of rapid urbanisation since 2005. In each case, expanding built-up areas replace farmland, and new roads, water supply, drainage and housing lag behind demand. Land conversion in Abuja disrupted local livelihoods, since the displaced inhabitants primary means of livelihood — farming — were affected."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Administrative Divisions and the Six Geopolitical Zones",
      "text": "Nigeria is a federal state divided into 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. States are the principal tier of subnational government, each with an elected governor and a state legislature, and are further divided into local government areas. The Federal Capital Territory is not a state and is administered directly by the federal government. Abuja lies in the central part of the country. The Federal Capital Territory was created in 1976 from portions of surrounding areas, and around 1991 Abuja formally replaced the southern city of Lagos as the capital. Details of the system of Government and the arrangements for Federalism are discussed in other sections; this section deals only with the organization of administrative units.\n\nThe number of states has changed several times. At independence in 1960, Nigeria had only three large regions. In 1967, Yakubu Gowon’s government divided the regions into 12 states. Subsequent military governments increased the number to 19 in 1976, 21 in 1987, 30 in 1991, and the current 36 in 1996, during Sani Abacha’s rule. The main aims of this process were to reduce the concentration of political and fiscal power in the regions and to respond to minority ethnic groups’ demands for states of their own. The 1999 Constitution confirmed the structure of 36 states. Frequent changes to state boundaries mean that population and economic statistics from different periods are difficult to compare directly at the state level; researchers generally need to adjust the data to a common geographical basis first.\n\nAlongside the 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria has another regional framework that is not prescribed by the Constitution but is widely used in administrative and political practice: the six geopolitical zones. These are the South West, South East, South South, North East, North West, and North Central. The number of states varies by zone. The North West has seven states—Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, and Zamfara—while the North East, South South, and South West each have six. The South East has five states—Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo. North Central comprises six states—Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau—together with the Federal Capital Territory. Because the Federal Capital Territory is included in North Central, statistical presentations often describe the zone as “six states plus the Federal Capital Territory.”\n\nThe six-zone framework has both geographical and political significance, but it is not based solely on physical geography. According to available sources, the concept was first proposed by Alex Ekwueme, vice president during the Second Republic of 1979–1983, on the basis of sociocultural similarities. The Abacha government adopted it when creating states in the 1990s, and it gradually became standard practice. The zones’ boundaries reflect ethnic distributions and historical political relationships more than natural features such as rivers and mountains. As a result, geopolitical boundaries sometimes coincide with physical geographical boundaries and sometimes diverge markedly from them. For example, North Central encompasses the central uplands, including the Jos Plateau, and the area where the Niger and Benue rivers meet, giving it a relatively coherent set of geographical features. Yet while the Jos Plateau lies in Plateau State in North Central, another plateau—the Mambilla Plateau—is in Taraba State in the North East, showing that similar landforms can extend across different zones. The Niger and Benue rivers flow through several zones, and Lokoja, near their confluence, is in Kogi State in North Central. The rivers themselves therefore offer little basis for delineating the zones.\n\nThe six geopolitical zones serve primarily as a framework for the distribution of political offices and fiscal resources. Government appointments, federal projects, and resource allocations are commonly balanced across the zones so that each region receives a broadly equitable share of political representation and public investment. This arrangement helps maintain national unity and regional balance, but it also makes changes to administrative boundaries, the number of states, and the regional assignment of the Federal Capital Territory more sensitive. For regional planning, the zones do not correspond directly to natural drainage basins, economic regions, or climate zones. Planners addressing water resources, agriculture, and transport therefore generally need to consider state boundaries, geopolitical zone boundaries, and drainage basin boundaries together. Statistical sources also differ in how they aggregate data by zone: some include the Federal Capital Territory in North Central, while others list it separately; some present data by state, while others aggregate it by zone. Before citing or comparing such data, it is therefore necessary to establish which administrative units and aggregation methods have been used."
    },
    {
      "heading": "边界的形成与变化",
      "text": "Colonial amalgamation\n\nLord Frederick Lugard's 1914 unification rested mainly on money and administration. The Northern Protectorate was poor and could not generate enough revenue to sustain its administration, while the South, especially Lagos and the Niger Delta, was economically viable, earning high income from palm produce, cocoa, and trade. Merging the territories let southern revenue support the north. Lugard had earlier led the Northern Protectorate, and after returning in 1912 he governed both regions. Unification was achieved at the beginning of 1914, with the formation of the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. The new state was built on a colonial frame, and its internal divisions were not erased. Many of the divisions between the north and south would remain. Later commentators have argued over whether the merger helped or harmed the country, since the two regions differed sharply in religion and culture.\n\nNorthern boundaries and Lake Chad\n\nThe northern and northeastern frontiers came from a series of Anglo-French agreements. An 1890 declaration set a line from Say on the Niger to Lake Chad, and Article IV of the Anglo - French Convention of June 14, 1898 modified the 1890 boundary between their respective spheres of influence and extended the boundary eastward into Lake Chad. An 1904 convention revised the line again, and the delimitation convention of May 29, 1906 and the demarcation agreement of February 19, 1910 fixed the present Niger–Nigeria alignment. The Chad–Nigeria boundary is a short diagonal line in the lake. It was originally established by French and British colonial administrators in 1906 and demarcated by them in 1911. Shrinkage of the lake has changed its physical character. The entire boundary formerly lay entirely in Lake Chad, however given the dramatic decrease in the lake's size over the past several decades most of the boundary now run across land, swamp and intermittent exposed islands in the lake. The Lake Chad states later set up a shared body, and the Lake Chad Basin Commission was established in 1964 by Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria, the four countries that contain parts of Lake Chad.\n\nThe Cameroon boundary and the Bakassi dispute\n\nThe long southeastern boundary with Cameroon rests on the Anglo-German agreement of 11 March 1913. The Court accordingly concludes that the boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria in Bakassi is delimited by Articles XVIII to XX of the Anglo-German Agreement of 11 March 1913, and that sovereignty over the peninsula lies with Cameroon. After independence the frontier faced another change. The Northern Cameroons voted in a plebiscite for union with Nigeria, which was accomplished on June 1, 1961. However, the Southern Cameroons voted by plebiscite to join the newly independent state of Cameroon on October 1, 1961.\n\nThe dispute over the Bakassi Peninsula was the most serious. Cameroon commenced proceedings by filing its Application at the Registry of the ICJ in 1994. Bakassi remained under Calabar administration in Nigeria until ICJ judgement of 2002. On 10 October 2002, the International Court of Justice ruled that sovereignty belonged to Cameroon, based principally on the Anglo-German agreements, and instructed Nigeria to transfer possession of the peninsula, but did not require the inhabitants to move or to change their nationality. The Court placed the maritime boundary to the west of the peninsula. Since the peninsula was a petroleum speculation, the economic stakes were debated. Despite speculation of vast crude reserves offshore, several existing oil wells in the waters impacted by the decision appear to be non-producing and there is little expectation of significant production from the disputed region in the near future. Implementation was handled by a joint body. The Cameroon-Nigeria Mixed Commission (CNMC) was established as compromise machinery for the implementation of the Bakassi judgment. It was set up at the tripartite summit of Cameroon, Nigeria and the United Nations, which held on 15th November, 2002 in Geneva. Nigeria first rejected the ruling but later accepted it under pressure from the international community.\n\nCross-border populations\n\nThe boundary lines divided communities that had long lived on both sides. In Bakassi, the ICJ's order left the Nigerian residents in place, so Cameroon was thus given a substantial Nigerian population and was required to protect their rights, infrastructure and welfare. In the Lake Chad region, the shared water is governed by four riparian states: Chad, Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria. Local residents have expressed mixed views of the frontiers. Some of Lake Chad's residents see fixed borders, manned by predatory, corrupt officials, and dream of an alternative. Movement across these frontiers is managed through joint arrangements, including the Lake Chad Basin Commission and the Nigeria–Chad joint demarcation commission, which maintain the border and an active joint demarcation commission."
    },
    {
      "heading": "农业与土地利用",
      "text": "Agriculture is the main form of land use in Nigeria, and its geography follows the north–south gradient of rainfall and vegetation. Crops are arranged in broad belts. The Sahel savanna suits millet, sorghum, cowpea and livestock, while the Sudan savanna is known for groundnut, cotton, sesame and maize. The middle belt, including Benue, Plateau and Kogi, produces yam, cassava, maize, rice and soybeans. In the south, the rainforest zone is associated with cocoa, rubber, oil palm and fruits, and cocoa is concentrated in the southwestern states of Ondo, Ogun, Osun, and Ekiti. Staple crops are more widespread than these zones suggest. Nigeria is the world's largest cassava producer, and it accounts for up to 20% of the world's cassava production.\n\nMost cropland is worked by smallholders. Smallholder farmers dominate, typically cultivating plots smaller than 2 hectares, and the bulk of cultivation is rainfed, so planting calendars follow the rains. The north has a single, relatively short wet season, which limits cropping to one main season, while the south's longer rainy period allows more intensive cycles. Irrigation has been expanded mainly in the wetlands. Since 1993, the National Fadama Development Projects have helped farmers use river valleys and floodplains for dry-season irrigated cultivation. This allows cropping after the rains end, when rainfed fields lie idle. Earlier, in the 1970s, the Agricultural Development Projects promoted water pumps for the same purpose.\n\nCropland expansion has reshaped land use, particularly in the north and middle belt. Expanding farmland has encroached on pastoral space. Of the 415 grazing reserves created by the northern regional government in the 1960s, most have since been lost, and only 114 were formally documented or demarcated. The rest were lost to population growth, urban and infrastructure development, and private commercial acquisition. Remote-sensing studies around Kano show a similar trend: grazing and fallow land declined sharply between 1980 and 2014 in areas close to the city, far more than in distant areas. Drought and desertification have pushed herders southward, and this movement has heightened competition with farmers. Weak enforcement of the Land Use Act and inconsistent local decisions have encouraged opportunistic land grabs. Conflict has followed. Amnesty International said the violence had killed more than 3,600 people since 2016, according to a 2018 report.\n\nForest conversion is a major part of this process. The FAO identifies long-term, permanent conversion of forest and shrubland to non-forest uses such as agriculture as a leading cause of forest loss in Nigeria. Forest reserves have also been formally released for farming. Forest belts have been subjected to intrusion, vegetation degradation, de-reservation for agriculture, industrialization and urban development. Estimates of the scale vary with the data source and period. A UN-REDD report put the decline in forest cover at 3.5% to 3.7% per annum over the period 2000 to 2010, which translates to a loss of 350,000–400,000 hectares of forest land yearly. Global Forest Watch data, using different baselines, show that Nigeria lost 1.33 million hectares of tree cover, equivalent to a 13 per cent decrease since 2000. Forest cover is estimated to have fallen from about 17 million hectares in 1990 to around 10 million hectares by 2020, according to a secondary press estimate.\n\nThe removal of forest cover has direct consequences for soil. Forests help maintain soil structure and fertility, and deforestation leads to soil erosion, which reduces the land's agricultural potential. Clearing for farms and overgrazing, combined with intense seasonal rainfall, have accelerated this loss. A RUSLE-based study of the Gubi watershed in semi-arid northern Nigeria found increasing levels of erosion, from 14,244.31 tons per year in 2000 to 16,792.33 tons per year in 2017. In arid and semi-arid zones, tree removal can also accelerate desertification, so the consequences of land clearance are most severe where rainfall is already marginal."
    },
    {
      "heading": "交通与基础设施的地理制约",
      "text": "Inland waterways on the Niger and Benue\n\nThe Niger and Benue form the main internal navigation axis, but their usefulness depends strongly on the season. The lower Niger can carry large flat-bottomed boats year-round as far as Onitsha, about 1,127 km from the ocean, while the stretch up to Jebba (1,448 km) is usable mainly from August to February. Lake Kainji, behind the dam on the Niger, offers about 130 km of navigable water. The Benue is a large braided river, roughly 2 km wide, with many islands and sandbars in the dry season. It is navigable to Makurdi from about June to December, and a 227 km reach between Lokoja and Makurdi has been the subject of mathematical modelling and dredging design aimed at extending the months when commercial traffic can run.\n\nDredging of the lower Niger from Warri to Baro has been pursued in earlier federal programmes, yet a 2026 commentary reports that Baro port is not operational. This illustrates that river transport depends on continuous maintenance of channels, not only on the natural river. Inland waterway freight is cheap for bulk goods, and the National Inland Waterways Authority has added hydrographic survey vessels and patrol boats to its fleet, with the Lokoja confluence serving as the main transfer point between the two rivers.\n\nLagos and the coastal ports\n\nLagos sits on a lagoon and harbour system that gives it sheltered deep-water access to the Gulf of Guinea, and this location explains why it became the country's dominant gateway. The Apapa Port Complex and Tin Can Island Port are described as the country's largest and busiest maritime gateways for international trade. Tin Can Island lies on an island about seven kilometres west of central Lagos across the harbour; it was begun in 1976, opened in 1977, and specialises in roll-on/roll-off handling of vehicles. Apapa's surrounding district is also defined by heavy truck traffic linked to port operations, which shows how port access and urban road capacity interact.\n\nThe newer Lekki Deep Sea Port, in the Lekki Free Trade Zone on the Lagos coast, opened in 2023 and was designed to take large vessels and ease pressure on Apapa and Tin Can. Concentration remains high: one report on the second quarter of 2026 estimated that Lagos ports handled about 84.6 per cent of Nigeria's merchandise trade, with Apapa and Lekki together accounting for roughly 89 per cent of recorded exports among the leading customs ports. Because most cargo must then travel inland by road or rail, the coastal location both concentrates trade and strains the transport corridors leading away from Lagos.\n\nTerrain, geology and the road and rail networks\n\nThe rail system reflects terrain and history. The Nigerian Railway Corporation operates about 3,505 km of 1,067 mm cape-gauge track, which the Lagos–Ibadan line with its 157 km of double track complements; none of the lines is electrified, and the cape-gauge network is widely described as poorly maintained. A 55 km branch from Kuru reaches Jos, which means the rail route climbs onto the central plateau and must cope with its escarpments and gradients. Standard-gauge lines were built in segments: the Abuja–Kaduna line opened in July 2016, the Warri–Itakpe segment in 2020, and Lagos–Ibadan in June 2021, while the 1,343 km Lagos–Kano line remains under construction.\n\nIn the Niger Delta and the coastal plain, the terrain is a different constraint. Swamps, creeks, mangroves and seasonally flooded ground require causeways, bridges and raised embankments, which raises construction costs and limits the density of all-weather roads. Power lines and substations face similar difficulties on soft, waterlogged ground, while hydropower from the Kainji dam on the Niger feeds the national grid from the northern-central area. In the highlands, steep slopes make road alignment and maintenance more costly than in the flat northern plains, and this difference also shapes where rail and highway investment is concentrated.\n\nBorders, access and security\n\nBorder regions are linked to transport in several ways. The Benue is navigable into Cameroon, to Garoua, from about August to November, so the river itself crosses the border seasonally. Rail planning also extends beyond the country: a cape-gauge link from Kano toward Maradi in Niger began construction in 2021. In the northeast, where the Lake Chad area and Sahel lie, sparse road networks and long, porous frontiers make movement dependent on a limited number of routes, which in turn concentrates patrols and checkpoints on those routes. Security considerations therefore affect when and where roads and waterways can be used, and the same geography that makes river and rail corridors valuable also makes them convenient points for control."
    },
    {
      "heading": "环境问题与自然灾害",
      "text": "Nigeria's environmental problems cluster in three zones: the arid north, where desertification is advancing; the Lake Chad basin on the northeastern border; and the Niger Delta, where decades of oil extraction have left lasting contamination. Flooding along the Niger and Benue rivers adds a seasonal hazard that reaches much of the country.\n\nDesertification and land degradation in the north\n\nThe northern states bordering the Sahel have lost large areas of vegetation. A study of Sokoto, Zamfara, Katsina, Jigawa, Yobe and Borno, along with the Lake Chad area, found that 45,945.08 km² of vegetation cover was lost within the study area between 1984 and 2016. The same research reported that built-up land grew fastest over that period, which points to the combined pressure of farming, grazing, and urban expansion. Degraded soils lose their ability to hold water, so each dry season leaves more bare, sandy ground exposed to wind. Dust-laden winds and drought spread the process southward, and the loss of plant cover feeds back into a drier local climate. Climate change is widely expected to intensify these pressures, as temperatures in the Sahel have been reported to rise faster than the global average.\n\nThe shrinking of Lake Chad\n\nLake Chad, on the northeastern border shared with Niger, Chad and Cameroon, has contracted dramatically. Between 1963 and 2013, the lake lost 90 percent of its water mass, shrinking from 25,000km2 to 2,500km2. Research identifies several overlapping causes rather than one. Drought in the 1970s and a decline in rainfall reduced the water reaching the lake, and one study attributes a large share of the loss to higher temperatures and declining precipitation that increased evaporation. Human factors are also significant. The large and unsustainable irrigation projects built by Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad have diverted water from both the lake and its feeder rivers, while overgrazing and clearing of vegetation around the basin have added to the decline. Population growth has increased demand on the same water. The effects reach beyond the lake itself: the basin supports at least 40 million people who depend on fishing, farming and herding, and the shrinking shoreline has destroyed wetlands and habitat for waterbirds. Armed conflict in the region has further disrupted the trade routes that once supported lake-based livelihoods.\n\nFlooding along the Niger and Benue\n\nFlooding in Nigeria occurs almost every year, and the Niger–Benue system is its main source. The Niger and Benue meet at Lokoja, and high water in either river increases flow downstream, which is why flood warnings often name these two cities. In 2022, heavy rainfall combined with releases from the Lagdo Dam in neighbouring Cameroon sent water down the Benue, flooding communities in Kogi and Benue states; the Lagdo Dam had been built in 1982, and a planned twin dam in Adamawa State was meant to contain such overflow. In autumn 2024, the Niger at Lokoja and the Benue at Makurdi reached red-alert levels, and over 300 people dead, 1.2 million affected by floods in 33 states, according to humanitarian reporting. Floodwaters destroyed cropland at the height of the lean season, with more than 61,000 hectares of farmland in Kogi reported inundated in a single assessment. In May 2025, a flood in Mokwa, Niger State, followed heavy rain, a dam collapse, poor drainage and deforestation, and killed at least 500 people. Cholera outbreaks often follow these floods because temporary shelters lack clean water and latrines.\n\nOil pollution in the Niger Delta\n\nOil extraction in the Niger Delta has caused some of the most serious contamination in the country. The delta holds the largest oil reserves in sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated 40 billion barrels. Production there began in the 1950s, and in Ogoniland, over two million barrels of oil polluted Ogoniland in 2,976 separate oil spills between 1976 and 1991, according to an activist account. At the request of the Nigerian government, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) assessed the region from 2006 onward. Its 2011 report documented contaminated soil, groundwater and creeks, and its scientists surveyed 200 oil-spill sites and 120 kilometers of pipelines, studied soil and water from 800 contaminated boreholes. The contamination reaches mangroves, fisheries and drinking water, and fishing has become nearly impossible in some villages. UNEP estimated that cleanup would cost about US$1 billion in its first five years and could take 25 to 30 years.\n\nImplementation has lagged far behind these targets. The government launched the Hydrocarbon Pollution Restoration Project (HYPREP) to carry out the work, and a 2020 investigation by NGOs reported that work has begun on only 11% of polluted sites identified by UNEP. A 2025 report based on leaked UN documents said HYPREP had spent close to US$1 billion without a clear result, citing inexperienced contractors and inadequate laboratory testing. Environmental governance is complicated by the fact that multiple companies operate in the region, that many spills are caused by sabotage and old pipelines, and that affected communities have limited access to independent monitoring. Remediation therefore depends on sustained funding, transparent procurement, and the restoration of the mangroves and freshwater systems that the delta's population relies on."
    },
    {
      "heading": "气候变化的预测与适应",
      "text": "Nigeria's climate has already shifted. Between 1960 and 2006, average annual temperature rose by about 0.8 °C, with a steep increase after 1980 and the strongest warming in the north.Between 1960 and 2006 Nigeria experienced an increase of 0.8°C in its average annual temperature, with a steep increase occurring since 1980 and the greatest increase occurring in the northern region. Over the same period, mean rainfall fell by roughly 1.8 percent per decade, a trend that projections for the coming decades build on.Mean rainfall over Nigeria shows a statistically decreasing trend of 3.5 mm per month (1.8%) per decade between 1960 and 2006\n\nTemperature is the most confidently projected element. Scientific assessments treat warming as close to certain, while precipitation could move in either direction.Nigeria is projected to warm steadily through the century, with more certainty about temperature increases than rainfall changes. Precipitation could rise or fall, but significant warming is virtually certain. Estimates for 2060 place the rise between 1.1 and 2.5 °C, with the largest increase in the north.The mean annual temperature is projected to increase by 1.1 to 2.5°C by 2060, with an extreme increase expected in the north of Nigeria. Under the CMIP5 ensemble, the annual temperature anomaly for 2080–2099 spans roughly +2.9 to +5.7 °C relative to 1986–2005.Annual Temperature Anomaly (°C) | +0.0 to +1.5 | +1.3 to +2.8 | +2.0 to +4.2 | +2.9 to +5.7 Heat stress will intensify accordingly, and one study expects average temperatures to climb from about 28 °C in 2020 toward 29–32 °C by 2100, depending on emissions.Nigeria's average temperature rising from ∼28 °C in 2020 to 29–32 °C by 2100, with higher increases under high emissions and smaller rises under low emissions, and growing uncertainty over time.\n\nRainfall projections are far less settled. Ensemble results point to a wetter south-south, southwest and parts of the northwest, alongside drier conditions in the southeast, northeast and parts of central Nigeria.The MME mean of bias-corrected GCM projections revealed an increase in rainfall in the south-south, southwest, and parts of the northwest whilst a decrease in the southeast, northeast, and parts of central Nigeria. The national annual totals in the same ensemble range from a decline of about 36 mm to an increase of about 47 mm by 2080–2099, which signals how wide the disagreement is.Annual Precipitation Anomaly (mm) | −18.6 to +21.5 | −25.6 to +29.6 | −28.0 to +39.4 | −36.0 to +47.0 Most assessments nonetheless expect greater year-to-year variability and heavier extreme rainfall events over much of the country.Increased variability in rainfall and extreme rainfall events are expected across most of the country Drought risk is a central consequence. Because higher temperatures raise evaporative demand, drought frequency is projected to increase across most of the country, although higher-emission pathways produce somewhat smaller increases in drought frequency because they bring more rain.The results further indicated that increase in temperature would decrease the SPEI across Nigeria, which will make droughts more frequent in most of the country under all the RCPs. However, increase in drought frequency would be less for higher RCPs due to increase in rainfall.\n\nThe coast presents a distinct set of risks, centred on Lagos. Lagos sits on low, flat ground, and its elevation is commonly given as about 1.5 m on average.Its geographical location combined with its relatively flat topography and an average elevation of only 1.5 m above sea level make this megacity vulnerable to coastal flooding, which will be exacerbated by the rising sea level Regional sea-level projections for the Lagos area in the IPCC's latest assessment reach about 54 cm by 2100 under RCP4.5 and about 75 cm under RCP8.5.Sea level projections for the region of Lagos in the most recent IPCC report show by 2100 a 54-cm sea level rise under the RCP4.5 scenario and a 75-cm rise under the RCP8.5 scenario Land subsidence compounds this, since sinking ground driven by groundwater extraction and urban growth reaches 2 to 87 mm per year in parts of the city.In Lagos, regional sea level rise combines with widespread subsidence (sinking of the land) mainly caused by groundwater extraction and urbanization, with subsidence rates varying between 2 and 87 Warnings that large parts of the city could be submerged by 2050 circulate widely, yet a separate local estimate puts the near-term rise at only about 12 to 17 cm by 2050, so the timing of the most severe impacts remains contested.It is predicted that Lagos could experience about 12-17 cm sea level rise by 2050. Saltwater intrusion is another hazard, since it can make groundwater saline and raise treatment costs.In addition, sea level rise would increase coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion into groundwater. This would make the city's groundwater salty and would increase treatment costs.\n\nMangroves and other coastal habitats are a natural buffer, but their protective value depends on their condition. Sand mining, which supplies the construction boom in the area, undermines coastal ecosystems that shield inhabitants from storms and rising seas.Sand mined at the country's shorelines to supply a construction boom in the area leads to eroding coastlines and the destruction of coastal ecosystems, which are critical components in protecting the inhabitants from storms and rising seas. Rising salinity and submersion are expected to change the physical and biological conditions of low-lying coastal habitats.Physical and biological parameters of several of these habitats would change substantially as a result of submersion and increased salinity. Protecting these buffers therefore forms part of any coastal adaptation strategy, alongside drainage repair, which is itself weakened by clogged waterways in Lagos.\"If Lagos is going to experience an overflow, it will be so disastrous because the internal drainage system is in a poor state and some are clogged up with plastics and debris,\" Adogame said.\n\nNigeria's formal adaptation planning began with the National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate Change (NASPA-CCN), prepared in 2011 under the Building Nigeria's Response to Climate Change project.The National Adaptation Plan project is based on the National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate Change in Nigeria (NASPAN-CNN), which was prepared in 2011 and focused on 13 thematic areas to be implemented in all states of the country. Its sectoral scope covers agriculture, freshwater and coastal resources, health, human settlements, energy and transport, among others.The Strategy outlines responses to climate change in key areas such as agriculture (crops and livestock), freshwater resources, coastal water resources and fisheries, forests, biodiversity, health and sanitation, human settlements and housing, energy, transportation and communications, industry and commerce, disaster, migration and security, livelihoods, vulnerable groups, and education. A later National Adaptation Plan process, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, builds on this foundation.In 2021, the Federal Government of Nigeria introduced a new project to design the country's National Adaptation Plan. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) supports this effort. This new project builds upon Nigeria's National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate Change in Nigeria (NASPA-CCN), which has existed since 2011. Nationally, the updated climate commitments prioritise five sectors, including agriculture, food security and health, and water and sanitation.The NDC's focus is on five priority sectors: agriculture, forestry, and land use; food security and health; energy and transportation; waste management; and water and sanitation.\n\nAgricultural adaptation illustrates the gap between plans and outcomes. In savanna maize systems, a study found that drought-tolerant varieties reduce but do not eliminate yield losses under projected warming.The yield of the drought-tolerant variety is projected to decline by 9–18% for RCP4.5 and 14–25% for RCP8.5 in the mid-century and 13–23% under RCP4.5 and 32–43% under RCP8.5 by the end-century. This suggests that crop breeding must be combined with water management, land-use planning and changes in planting calendars to be effective.\n\nSeveral data limitations constrain these projections. They depend on which global climate models and emission pathways are chosen, and results are sensitive to bias-correction methods.The analysis revealed that MRI-CGCM3, HadGEM2-ES, CSIRO-Mk3-6-0, and CESM1-CAM5 are the most appropriate GCMs for projecting rainfall and temperature, and the linear scaling (SCL) is the best method for correcting bias. Local-scale data on coastal subsidence, groundwater and drainage are also sparse, which makes precise flood-risk mapping difficult. Remote sensing and geographic information systems are increasingly used to fill these gaps, particularly in assessing flood inundation and land subsidence in Lagos.The study demonstrates that to accurately assess flood risk in the city of Lagos, it is essential to use remote sensing and geographic information system techniques that evaluate the risk (flood inundation, sea-level rise, and land subsidence) and vulnerability components (settlements, land use change, and drainage losses)."
    },
    {
      "heading": "History of Geographical Knowledge and Mapping",
      "text": "European Exploration of the Niger River and Lake Chad\n\nKnowledge of the river systems within Nigeria accumulated gradually. In 1795, Britain’s African Association commissioned the Scottish surgeon Mungo Park to locate and map a great river believed to flow through the African interior, later identified as the Niger. Park reached Ségou in July 1796, where he saw the Niger River for the first time. His journey was fraught with difficulties, including several months of imprisonment by a Moorish leader, but he ultimately succeeded in finding the river. His travel account suggested that the Niger and the Congo might be the same river, a conjecture later proved incorrect. His second expedition, in 1805, ended in tragedy: by the time the expedition reached the Niger in August, only 11 Europeans remained alive, most of the others having died of dysentery or fever.\n\nIt is important to note that European “discovery” here refers to documentation and publication. Riverside communities, merchants, and scholars had long been familiar with the river and its seasonal routes. Park’s contribution was to provide European readers with reliable, published observations of its upper reaches.\n\nThe exploration of Lake Chad followed a similar pattern. On February 4, 1823, a British mission comprising Walter Oudney, Hugh Clapperton, and Dixon Denham reached the lake’s northern shore, becoming the first Europeans to see it. They then traveled west to Kuka in the Bornu Empire. In December of the same year, Denham explored the lakeshore alone and demonstrated that Lake Chad was not the source of the Niger, as had previously been widely believed. The accounts written by members of the mission were also controversial: Denham’s travel narrative, published in 1826, downplayed Clapperton’s and Oudney’s roles in the first exploration of Lake Chad and claimed most of the credit for himself. Clapperton’s travel account was published in 1828, and Richard Lander subsequently published an account of Clapperton’s final expedition in 1830.\n\nAccuracy Problems in Early Maps\n\nEarly maps often reflected contemporary theories rather than actual survey findings. In 1798, the British cartographer James Rennell produced a map showing the Niger disappearing into the interior near Wangara. This depiction supported his own conjecture about the river’s course and had a considerable influence on subsequent mapping. Around the same time, maps based on Park’s explorations first depicted an east–west mountain range that became known as the Mountains of Kong. Lake Chad presented similar problems: early English-language sources were inconsistent about its name and location, and explorers even gave it a distinctly European name, “Waterloo.”\n\nColonial-Era Mapping and Data Collection\n\nColonial-era mapping relied largely on route surveys, scattered astronomical observations, and local reports, resulting in uneven coverage. Hydrological information about the northern interior came mainly from travelers’ route records, whereas information about the southern delta and coastal areas came more often from port and trading activities. Because sources varied greatly in accuracy and scale, maps produced during this period often required extensive later corrections before they could be used in modern analysis.\n\nModern Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems\n\nSince the late twentieth century, remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) have gradually become major tools in geographical research on Nigeria. A review of environmental management in Nigeria noted that their applications now encompass monitoring land use and land cover change, coastal erosion and shoreline dynamics, flood risk, desertification, wetland and biodiversity assessment, oil spill monitoring, and urban expansion. In regional studies, researchers used Landsat imagery from 1986 and 2002 to analyze land use changes in southwestern Nigeria. In Lagos, researchers used satellite imagery from 2000, 2010, and 2020, classifying land cover into six categories: water bodies, built-up areas, bare land, forest, vegetation, and wetlands. The study reported substantial growth in built-up area over the two decades, with an increase of 33.57%. In the Niger Delta, researchers used satellite imagery and GIS modeling to analyze spatial patterns, incorporating information on land use, soil erodibility, and surface slope. In boundary management, time-series data acquired by satellite sensors have been used for boundary monitoring and conflict mediation.\n\nData Sources and Research Limitations\n\nThe use of remote sensing data also raises issues of comparability. Different studies use different sensors; for example, some combine imagery and other data from NigeriaSat-1, Landsat ETM+, SPOT 5, QuickBird, and SRTM. Classification methods also affect results. Some studies use maximum likelihood classification, and accuracy assessments must be reported separately. The review also noted that domestic institutional capacity and academic research are growing, but data sharing, links to decision-making, funding, and ground-based validation remain significant weaknesses. In addition, much historical geographical information relies on older aerial photographs and paper maps, whose differences in scale and collection standards still need to be checked individually. Consequently, geographical data from different periods and sources are often difficult to compare directly in terms of statistical definitions, accuracy, and coverage. This remains an unresolved issue in contemporary geographical research on Nigeria."
    }
  ],
  "links": [
    "petroleum",
    "natural-gas",
    "river",
    "floodplain",
    "estuary",
    "drainage-basin",
    "wetland",
    "aquifer",
    "groundwater",
    "deforestation",
    "ecosystem",
    "biodiversity",
    "erosion",
    "ecological-restoration",
    "irrigation",
    "city",
    "urbanization",
    "infrastructure",
    "urban-planning",
    "demography",
    "government",
    "federalism",
    "international-court-of-justice"
  ],
  "sources": [
    {
      "title": "Geography of Nigeria",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria: Geography",
      "url": "https://www.postcolonialweb.org/nigeria/geography.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/geography/Morocco-to-Slovakia/Nigeria.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria Maps & Facts - World Atlas",
      "url": "https://www.worldatlas.com/maps/nigeria"
    },
    {
      "title": "Neighboring Countries of Nigeria: All 4 Bordering Nations",
      "url": "https://geographyworlds.com/blog/neighboring-countries-of-nigeria/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria@60: Why Nigeria’s capital was moved from Lagos to Abuja - Dubawa",
      "url": "https://dubawa.org/nigeria60-why-nigerias-capital-was-moved-from-lagos-to-abuja/"
    },
    {
      "title": "New Karshi",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Karshi"
    },
    {
      "title": "The State House (Aso Rock Villa)",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_State_House_(Aso_Rock_Villa)"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria: Clearing the locals to make Abuja the capital",
      "url": "https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/4/11/nigeria-clearing-the-locals-to-make-abuja-the-capital"
    },
    {
      "title": "Flashback: Why federal capital of Nigeria was relocated from Lagos to Abuja by government",
      "url": "https://www.legit.ng/nigeria/1702657-flashback-federal-capital-nigeria-moved-lagos-abuja-by-government/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Abuja remains Nigeria’s capital, federal government says - Africa Check",
      "url": "https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/abuja-remains-nigerias-capital-federal-government-says"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria - Geography",
      "url": "https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/nigeria/geography.htm"
    },
    {
      "title": "Chappal Waddi",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chappal_Waddi"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mambilla Plateau",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mambilla_Plateau"
    },
    {
      "title": "Shere Hills",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shere_Hills"
    },
    {
      "title": "List of Nigerian states by highest point",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nigerian_states_by_highest_point"
    },
    {
      "title": "AQUATIC PLANTS AND WETLAND WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF NIGERIA",
      "url": "https://www.fao.org/4/t3660e/t3660e01.htm"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria Physical Setting: Relief and drainage",
      "url": "https://tansicollege.edu.ng/content/nigeria-physical-setting-relief-and-drainage"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lesson Notes By Weeks and Term - Senior Secondary 1",
      "url": "https://lessonotes.com/v2/senior-secondary-school-1/lesson-notes-for-senior-secondary-1-3rd-term-week-2-geography-topic-is-relief-and-drainage-of-nigeria.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Benue River",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue_River"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria Map - Cities and Roads - GIS Geography",
      "url": "https://gisgeography.com/nigeria-map/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Map showing the basement geology of Nigeria: The Migmatite-Gneiss...",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-showing-the-basement-geology-of-Nigeria-The-Migmatite-Gneiss-Complex-mgn-the_fig1_347548557"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Geology of Nigeria Precambrian Basement complex Sedimentary rocks Cretaceous Quaternary Alluvial deposit",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374696133_Geology_of_Nigeria_Precambrian_Basement_complex_Sedimentary_rocks_Cretaceous_Quaternary_Alluvial_deposit"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Migmatite-Gneiss-Granite Basement of Southwestern Nigeria: Mineralogical and Geochemical Evidence for a Possible Common Ancient Protolith",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382714796_Migmatite-Gneiss-Granite_Basement_of_Southwestern_Nigeria_Mineralogical_and_Geochemical_Evidence_for_a_Possible_Common_Ancient_Protolith"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Migmatite-Gneiss-Granite Basement of Southwestern Nigeria: Mineralogical and Geochemical Evidence for a Possible Common Ancient Protolith",
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    },
    {
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    },
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    },
    {
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      "url": "https://epsc.wustl.edu/~ggeuler/reading/07-spring/cameroon/week1/fitton_1980-epsl-the_benue_trough_and_cameroon_line_-_a_migrating_rift_system_in_west_africa.pdf"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48639-8"
    },
    {
      "title": "Jos Plateau",
      "url": "https://www.britannica.com/place/Jos-Plateau"
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    {
      "title": "Radiation exposure from high-level radiation area and related mining and processing activities of Jos Plateau, central Nigeria - ScienceDirect",
      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0531513104016139"
    },
    {
      "title": "Jos Plateau, Sabon Gida Valley, Liruei Lode",
      "url": "https://portergeo.com.au/database/mineinfo.php?mineid=mn361"
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    {
      "title": "Benue Trough",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue_Trough"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://www.withinnigeria.com/piece/2025/09/20/where-do-river-niger-and-river-benue-meet/"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://feow.org/ecoregions/details/518"
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    {
      "title": "Imo River",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imo_River"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.britannica.com/place/Gongola-River"
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    {
      "title": "Kaduna River",
      "url": "https://www.worldatlas.com/rivers/kaduna-river.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Jos Plateau",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos_Plateau"
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    },
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      "url": "https://www.abdn.ac.uk/law/blog/the-lake-chad-basin-region-conflicts-crises-and-contemporary-developments/"
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    {
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      "title": "Lake Chad",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Chad"
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    {
      "title": "figure of the week the shrinking lake chad",
      "url": "https://www.brookings.edu/articles/figure-of-the-week-the-shrinking-lake-chad"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lake Chad: Geography, Shrinkage, Facts & Environmental Crisis",
      "url": "https://geographyworlds.com/blog/lake-chad-geography/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://nigeriainformation.fandom.com/wiki/Lake_Chad"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.climate-refugees.org/reports/case-study-loss-and-damage"
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      "url": "https://allafrica.com/stories/201808210056.html"
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      "url": "https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/climate-change-lake-chad-region-affects-several-countries-negatively"
    },
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      "url": "https://soluap.com/borno-tourist-places/"
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      "url": "https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6360/"
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    },
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      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214581821001646"
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    {
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      "url": "https://iucn.org/news/eau/201911/chad-basin-a-lifeline-people-nature-and-peace"
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      "url": "https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/nigeria"
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      "title": "http://www.unaab.edu.ng COURSE CODE: BOT421 COURSE TITLE: Nigerian Vegetation",
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      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375856322_The_Niger_Delta_Mangrove_Ecosystem_and_Its_Conservation_Challenges"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_Delta_mangroves"
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      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380477578_Niger_Delta_Mangrove_Ecosystem_Biodiversity_Past_and_present_pollution_threat_and_mitigation"
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    {
      "title": "Coastal floods due to sea level rise in Lagos by 2030 SSP3.0-7...",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Coastal-floods-due-to-sea-level-rise-in-Lagos-by-2030-SSP30-7-extracted-from-Climate_fig1_363335437"
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    {
      "title": "Geology of the Niger Delta Basin - ScienceDirect",
      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128121610000028"
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      "title": "Nigeria’s Natural Gas Reserves Hit Historic High Of 210.54 Trillion Cubic Feet - Majorwaves Energy Report",
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    },
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      "url": "https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/power-and-energy/nigerias-energy-consumption"
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      "url": "https://www.policycenter.ma/publications/nigeria-africas-gas-powerhouse-making"
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      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1875510010000673"
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      "url": "https://www.science.gov/topicpages/n/niger+delta+petroleum.html"
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    },
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      "url": "https://nairametrics.com/2026/07/11/top-10-most-populous-countries-in-africa-in-2026/"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Nigeria"
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      "url": "https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/nigeria-demographics/"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwagwalada"
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    },
    {
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    },
    {
      "title": "International Boundary Study No. 90",
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    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) The ICJ's Decision on Bakassi Peninsula in Retrospect: a True Evaluation of the History, Issues and Critique of the Judgement",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355099811_The_ICJ's_Decision_on_Bakassi_Peninsula_in_Retrospect_a_True_Evaluation_of_the_History_Issues_and_Critique_of_the_Judgement"
    },
    {
      "title": "ICJ ruling on the Bakassi",
      "url": "https://amandala.com.bz/news/icj-ruling-bakassi/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Bakassi",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakassi"
    },
    {
      "title": "Bakassi Peninsula",
      "url": "https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/bakassi-peninsula.htm"
    },
    {
      "title": "International Conflicts and Enforcement of Judgment: Exploring the Use of Administrative Implementation Measures in Post-ICJs Decision on Bakassi",
      "url": "https://www.abacademies.org/articles/international-conflicts-and-enforcement-of-judgment-exploring-the-use-of-administrative-implementation-measures-in-posticjs-decisi-14564.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "The state of Lake Chad",
      "url": "https://africasacountry.com/2020/07/the-state-of-lake-chad"
    },
    {
      "title": "INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE CASE CONCERNING THE LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY",
      "url": "https://icj-web.leman.un-icc.cloud/sites/default/files/case-related/94/8598.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Agriculture Commodity Nigeria",
      "url": "https://commodity.ng/agriculture/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Food Crops 1.Cassava: Cultivated in many pa",
      "url": "https://fctemis.org/notes/18090_Areas%20of%20food%20and%20cash%20crops%20in%20Nigeria.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Agriculture in Nigeria: 7 Interesting Facts & Statistics",
      "url": "https://babbangona.com/agriculture-in-nigeria-7-interesting-facts-statistics/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Herders against Farmers: Nigeria’s Expanding Deadly Conflict",
      "url": "https://www.thenigerianvoice.com/news/257480/herders-against-farmers-nigerias-expanding-deadly-conflict.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Changes in agricultural and grazing land, and insights for mitigating farmer-herder conflict in West Africa - ScienceDirect",
      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204622000329"
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    {
      "title": "Land use dynamics and farmer-herder conflicts: A spatial analysis of case studies from Sudan and Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.sparc-knowledge.org/publications-resources/land-use-dynamics-farmer-herder-conflicts-spatial-analysis-sudan-nigeria"
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    {
      "title": "Nomads and farmers in fight for Nigeria’s heartland",
      "url": "https://www.pressreader.com/india/the-sunday-guardian/20181223/281728385629139"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) Forest Loss in Nigeria, the Impact on Climate and People from the perspectives of illegal Forest activities and Government Negligence.",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333557763_Forest_Loss_in_Nigeria_the_Impact_on_Climate_and_People_from_the_perspectives_of_illegal_Forest_activities_and_Government_Negligence"
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    {
      "title": "Forest Loss in Nigeria, the Impact on Climate and",
      "url": "https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/170981/Forest_Loss_Nigeria_Owolabi_2019_DSCM_Thesis.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y"
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    {
      "title": "Nigeria’s forests are fast disappearing",
      "url": "https://theconversation.com/nigerias-forests-are-fast-disappearing-urgent-steps-are-needed-to-protect-their-benefits-to-the-economy-and-environment-223922"
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    {
      "title": "Deforestation: Fresh concerns over rapid loss of forests",
      "url": "https://guardian.ng/news/deforestation-fresh-concerns-over-rapid-loss-of-forests/"
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    {
      "title": "Impacts of deforestation on the environment - Blueprint Newspapers Limited",
      "url": "https://blueprint.ng/impacts-of-deforestation-on-the-environment/"
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    {
      "title": "Spatio-temporal soil loss modelling using RUSLE and sediment delivery into a reservoir in a semi-arid region of northern Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11530838/"
    },
    {
      "title": "What Crops Does Nigeria Grow?",
      "url": "https://guardian.ng/nigerian/what-crops-does-nigeria-grow/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Herders against Farmers: Nigeria’s Expanding Deadly Conflict",
      "url": "https://www.crisisgroup.org/rpt/africa/nigeria/252-herders-against-farmers-nigerias-expanding-deadly-conflict"
    },
    {
      "title": "The Niger River Basin AVision for Sustainable Management",
      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/187941468097179065/pdf/345180PAPER0NR1Basin01OFFICIAL0USE1.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "River Benue Navigational Improvements, Nigeria - Beckett Rankine",
      "url": "https://beckettrankine.com/river-benue-navigational-improvements-nigeria/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Make River Niger navigable to grow Nigeria's economy — Don",
      "url": "https://thesun.ng/make-river-niger-navigable-to-grow-nigerias-economy-don/"
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    {
      "title": "Niger-Benue inland waterway port project to create 5,000 jobs - Official",
      "url": "https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/497222-niger-benue-inland-waterway-port-project-to-create-5000-jobs-official.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Engineering controls dredging the Niger And Benue Prof Nyityo",
      "url": "https://www.ddhmag.com/engineering-controls-and-dredging-investigations-on-the-niger-and-benue/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Apapa",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apapa"
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    {
      "title": "Tin Can Island Port",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Can_Island_Port"
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    {
      "title": "Nigerian Ports We Operate At — Apapa, Tin Can, Port Harcourt, Onne, Calabar, MMIA",
      "url": "https://cargoburg.com/ports/"
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    {
      "title": "Lagos Ports Account for 84.6% of Nigeria’s Merchandise Trade",
      "url": "https://www.nigeriahousingmarket.com/news/lagos-ports-handle-84-6-percent-nigeria-trade"
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    {
      "title": "Lagos%E2%80%93Kano Standard Gauge Railway",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagos%E2%80%93Kano_Standard_Gauge_Railway"
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    {
      "title": "Nigerian Railway Corporation",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Railway_Corporation"
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    {
      "title": "Rail transport in Nigeria",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Nigeria"
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    {
      "title": "Impacts of land cover changes on desertification in northern Nigeria and implications on the Lake Chad Basin",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341878450_Impacts_of_land_cover_changes_on_desertification_in_northern_Nigeria_and_implications_on_the_Lake_Chad_Basin"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SHRINKAGE OF LAKE CHAD AND SUGGESTIONS IN WHICH IT CAN BE RESTORED",
      "url": "https://www.academia.edu/75799213/FACTORS_CONTRIBUTING_TO_THE_SHRINKAGE_OF_LAKE_CHAD_AND_SUGGESTIONS_IN_WHICH_IT_CAN_BE_RESTORED"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lake Chad: almost gone",
      "url": "https://www.grida.no/resources/5593"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria Situation Report, 28 Oct 2024 - Nigeria",
      "url": "https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-situation-report-28-oct-2024"
    },
    {
      "title": "Hopes Fade for Cleanup In Nigeria’s Oil-Rich Delta",
      "url": "https://e360.yale.edu/features/hopes_fade_for_cleanup_in_nigerias_oil-rich_delta"
    },
    {
      "title": "A journey through the oil spills of Ogoniland",
      "url": "https://www.foei.org/a-journey-through-the-oil-spills-of-ogoniland/"
    },
    {
      "title": "UNEP Welcomes Nigerian Governments Green Light for Ogoniland Oil Clean-Up",
      "url": "https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/unep-welcomes-nigerian-governments-green-light-ogoniland-oil-clean"
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    {
      "title": "No clean up, no justice: Shell's oil pollution in the Niger Delta - Amnesty International",
      "url": "https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/06/no-clean-up-no-justice-shell-oil-pollution-in-the-niger-delta/"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Geospatial Assessments of the Shrinking Lake Chad",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327691361_Geospatial_Assessments_of_the_Shrinking_Lake_Chad"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE SHRINKAGE OF LAKE CHAD AND SUGGESTIONS IN WHICH IT CAN BE RESTORED",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344286312_FACTORS_CONTRIBUTING_TO_THE_SHRINKAGE_OF_LAKE_CHAD_AND_SUGGESTIONS_IN_WHICH_IT_CAN_BE_RESTORED"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria: Floods - Situation Report No. 5 (As of 1 November 2024) - Nigeria",
      "url": "https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/nigeria-floods-situation-report-no-5-1-november-2024"
    },
    {
      "title": "2022 Nigeria floods",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Nigeria_floods"
    },
    {
      "title": "2025 Mokwa flood",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Mokwa_flood"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria: Issues in the Ogoni Oil Spill Cleanup",
      "url": "https://allafrica.com/stories/202501020007.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Climate change / Nigeria",
      "url": "https://dicf.unepgrid.ch/nigeria/climate-change"
    },
    {
      "title": "Climate 4 Classrooms: National Futures Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.rgs.org/media/5ocbcjdl/nationalfuturesnigeria.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Climate change-induced heatwaves in Nigeria: Causes, challenges, and adaptive strategies - ScienceDirect",
      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479725034097"
    },
    {
      "title": "Projection of meteorological droughts in Nigeria during growing seasons under climate change scenarios",
      "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-67146-8"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lagos floods - Interconnected Disaster Risks 2021/2022",
      "url": "https://s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/interconnectedrisks/reports/2022/Case-studies/TR_220824_LagosFloods.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lagos is getting less rain, but more heavy storms. What it can do to prepare - by Nelson Odume, LIRA2030 grantee - International Science Council",
      "url": "https://council.science/news/lagos-is-getting-less-rain-but-more-heavy-storms-what-it-can-do-to-prepare/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lagos floods - Interconnected Disaster Risks",
      "url": "https://interconnectedrisks.org/2022/disasters/lagos-floods"
    },
    {
      "title": "How rising seas may wipe off Lagos, others by 2050",
      "url": "https://guardian.ng/news/how-rising-seas-may-wipe-off-lagos-others-by-2050/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria launches National Adaptation Plan project",
      "url": "https://www.unep.org/gan/news/press-release/nigeria-launches-national-adaptation-plan-project"
    },
    {
      "title": "CLIMATE CHANGE LEGISLATION IN Nigeria AN EXCERPT FROM",
      "url": "https://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/NIGERIA.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "The Nigerian Government is Designing a National Adaptation Plan - Climate Scorecard",
      "url": "https://www.climatescorecard.org/2022/10/the-nigerian-government-is-designing-a-national-adaptation-plan/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Climate Action Strategies, Practices and Initiatives: Challenges and Opportunities for Locally-Led Adaptation in Nigeria",
      "url": "https://afripoli.org/climate-action-strategies-practices-and-initiatives-challenges-and-opportunities-for-locally-led-adaptation-in-nigeria"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8076210/"
    },
    {
      "title": "| Map of Lagos State showing high, moderate, and low flood-risk Local...",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-Lagos-State-showing-high-moderate-and-low-flood-risk-Local-Government-Areas_fig4_382320369"
    },
    {
      "title": "Projection of meteorological droughts in Nigeria during growing seasons under climate change scenarios - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7308398/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Nigeria Presentation un4naps",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Nigeria_Presentation_un4naps.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mungo Park's African Adventures",
      "url": "https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mungo-parks-african-adventures"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mungo Park",
      "url": "https://archania.org/p/individuals/explorers/mungo-park"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mungo Park: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland",
      "url": "https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/p/mungopark.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mungo Park (explorer)",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mungo_Park_(explorer)"
    },
    {
      "title": "Dixon Denham",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixon_Denham"
    },
    {
      "title": "\"Denham, F.R.S.\" by The Rockefeller University",
      "url": "https://digitalcommons.rockefeller.edu/rare-books/171/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Hugh Clapperton",
      "url": "https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/explorers-travelers-and-conquerors-biographies/hugh-clapperton"
    },
    {
      "title": "Hugh Clapperton",
      "url": "https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugh-Clapperton"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mountains of Kong",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountains_of_Kong"
    },
    {
      "title": "1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chad - Wikisource, the free online library",
      "url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Chad"
    },
    {
      "title": "Appraisal of GIS and Remote Sensing Applications in Land and Environmental Management in Nigeria",
      "url": "https://iiardjournals.org/abstract.php?j=IJGEM&pn=Appraisal+of+GIS+and+Remote+Sensing+Applications+in+Land+and+Environmental+Management+in+Nigeria&id=63497"
    },
    {
      "title": "Application of remote sensing and GIS inland use/land cover mapping and change detection in a part of south western Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajest/article/view/135046"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Land Use/Land Cover Changes Detection in Lagos City of Nigeria Using Remote Sensing and GIS · Pathology",
      "url": "https://www.academia.edu/128090195/Land_Use_Land_Cover_Changes_Detection_in_Lagos_City_of_Nigeria_Using_Remote_Sensing_and_GIS"
    },
    {
      "title": "GIS and Remote Sensing Applications in the Assessment of Change within a Coastal Environment in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3785684/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Satellite Image Covering Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Satellite-Image-Covering-Nigeria_fig3_279530433"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mapping and Monitoring of the impact of gully erosion in southeastern Nigeria with satellite remote sensing and geographic information system. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237414170_Mapping_and_Monitoring_of_the_impact_of_gully_erosion_in_southeastern_Nigeria_with_satellite_remote_sensing_and_geographic_information_system_The_International_Archives_of_the_Photogrammetry"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Application of remote sensing and GIS inLand use/land cover mapping and change detection in a part of south western Nigeria",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228676035_Application_of_remote_sensing_and_GIS_inLand_useland_cover_mapping_and_change_detection_in_a_part_of_south_western_Nigeria"
    }
  ],
  "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
}