{
  "id": "eswatini",
  "title": "Eswatini",
  "lang": "en",
  "source_lang": "en",
  "summary": "Eswatini is a landlocked absolute monarchy in Southern Africa, bordered by South Africa and Mozambique, formerly known as Swaziland.",
  "category": "geography",
  "subcategory": "",
  "type": "place",
  "aliases": [
    "Swaziland",
    "Kingdom of Eswatini",
    "埃斯瓦蒂尼",
    "史瓦济兰"
  ],
  "generated_at": "2026-10-09",
  "model": "pro/claude-haiku-5-5",
  "url": "https://aiwiki.page/en/eswatini/",
  "translations": {
    "zh-Hans": {
      "url": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/eswatini/",
      "json": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/eswatini.json"
    }
  },
  "sections": [
    {
      "heading": "",
      "text": "Eswatini is a small landlocked kingdom in Southern Africa, enclosed by South Africa on three sides and Mozambique to the east. Covering about 17,364 square kilometres, it is one of the smallest countries on the African continent. It was called Swaziland until 2018, and it is ruled by King Mswati III, who has held the throne since 1986. Eswatini is widely described as one of the last absolute monarchies in the world, and its political system, which combines a monarch, a parliament, and traditional customs, is a central subject of study in the country's politics.\n\nThe country is also closely bound to its larger neighbour economically. Its currency is linked to the South African rand, its public revenue depends heavily on the shared customs arrangement of the Southern African Customs Union, and most of its exports and imports pass through South Africa. This dependence sits alongside a highly distinctive national identity built on the Swazi people, the siSwati language, and ceremonies that link the monarchy to ancestral tradition. Its history, from the migration of Swazi groups into the region through colonial rule and the struggle for independence, shapes both its institutions and its present-day debates over democracy, land, and development.\n\nThis entry proceeds from the name and geography to the country's natural environment, its pre-colonial and colonial history, and its constitutional monarchy and civil society. It then covers population and culture, the structure and performance of the economy, public health, education, and foreign relations, and it closes with disputes over land and natural resources. Where sources differ on dates or statistics, the entry notes the discrepancy and the year of the data."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Name and naming history",
      "text": "The English name Swaziland is traditionally tied to King Mswati II, a nineteenth-century ruler under whom the territory was expanded and unified. The Kingdom of Eswatini, formerly known as Swaziland, derives its name from King Mswati II, and the Swazi people take their name from the same ruler. The English form itself is a blend: the name is usually described as an anglicized combination of the people's name and the English word \"land,\" a form that was replaced by eSwatini, the siSwati term for the place of the Swati.\n\nThe change of name came on 19 April 2018. King Mswati III made the announcement at a stadium in Manzini, during celebrations of his birthday and of fifty years of independence from Britain. He argued that many African states had gone back to their pre-colonial names after independence, and that the country had not done so when it became independent in 1968. Reports also presented the move as a way to end confusion with Switzerland, since \"Whenever we go abroad, people refer to us as Switzerland,\" the king said. The idea was not new: the move had been mooted for several years, with legislators considering the issue in 2015, and the country had recently begun using its traditional name at the U.N. General Assembly and at the African Union. The change took effect without a separate legislative process; a purported copy of the order, dated 19 April, was published by a news blog in May 2018, and it was validated by some other sources.\n\nThe state's formal name and its short name are different. The formal name is the Kingdom of Eswatini, while the short form is Eswatini. The official name of the Kingdom of Swaziland was changed to the Kingdom of Eswatini, or Eswatini, in April 2018. Reference works distinguish between the two: one outline lists Eswatini as the common English country name and the Kingdom of Eswatini as the official English country name. Official styling varies in practice. Some documents write the name with a lowercase initial \"e\" (for example, \"Kingdom of eSwatini (Umbuso weSwatini)\"), which reflects the Swazi-language form, while English-language usage generally drops the lowercase \"e\" in running text. Foreign ministries and multilateral bodies have adopted the new name, and the United States State Department, for instance, uses it in its country pages.\n\nThe names also differ across languages. In the Swazi language, eSwatini means \"place of the Swazi.\" The English-language name Swaziland is often described as the same meaning expressed through an English blend. The language itself is called siSwati in its native form, and English-language sources use \"Swazi\" for both the people and the language. The prevalent language is Swazi (siSwati in native form). Some English-language sources use the spelling \"Swati\" for the people and language, and this spelling is closer to the native form. The adjective and demonym in English is usually \"Swazi,\" and the older name Swaziland is still used for the period before 2018, in historical texts, and in some international contexts."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Location, borders and area",
      "text": "Eswatini lies in the east of Southern Africa. South Africa bounds it on the north, west and south, and Mozambique touches its eastern edge South Africa bounds it to the north, west, and south while it shares an international border with Mozambique to the northeast. Sources disagree on the direction of the Mozambican frontier, with some describing it as eastern and others as north-eastern. Along that edge, the Lebombo range forms a ridge with an elevation of around 600 meters / 2,000 ft.\n\nThe land frontier is short. Of the roughly 535 km of boundary, about 430 km adjoins South Africa and 105 km adjoins Mozambique. As a landlocked country, Eswatini has neither coastline nor maritime claims. Because the kingdom controls no shoreline, it cannot use its own port, and this fact underlies most of its transport arrangements.\n\nThe total area is generally given as 17,363 square kilometres, of which 160 are water. Other reference works use 17,364 km², and one gives a land area of 17,204.00 km^2, which is consistent with the water figure. Overall dimensions also vary by source: one describes the country as no more than 200 km or 120 mi north to south and 130 km or 81 miles east to west, while another gives a north-south span of approximately 175 kilometers.\n\nIn international comparison, Eswatini ranks among Africa's smallest states. A UN country profile likens its extent to that of Wales, describing it as a small landlocked country which covers just over 17,000 square kilometers. Its small size means that the entire country is within reach of its neighbours' road and rail networks, and it has little internal distance to cover.\n\nTransport routes, trade corridors and dependence on neighbouring ports\n\nLacking a coast, the kingdom relies on ports in South Africa and Mozambique. Eswatini has no direct sea access, although the ports of Durban, South Africa and Maputo, Mozambique, are accessible by rail and road. A dry port in Matsapha Industrial Town facilitates the road-to-rail connection. The national rail system is about 300 km long and connects to Maputo and Durban through a north–south line that ends at the Matsapha inland container depot.\n\nRail development was slow and shaped by regional politics. In 1902 the British administration of Eswatini agreed with the Portuguese administration of Mozambique to construct a railway line from Lourenço Marques (now Maputo) to Eswatini. The Mozambican section as far as Goba was opened in 1905, but the line was not continued across the border. Later, the Mozambican War of Independence and the subsequent Mozambican Civil War caused disruptions in Eswatini's port trade through Mozambique. This prompted a new link to South Africa: this line, opened in 1978, gave Eswatini rail access to Durban and Richards Bay. A northern connection opened in 1986 offered a shorter route to Richards Bay, which broke much of the traffic and cargo transported by the port of Maputo.\n\nMaputo remains central to the kingdom's trade. The port is the nearest deep-water port for land-locked neighbors such as Eswatini, and Eswatini has joined the major trade corridor which connects the Gauteng, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa with Maputo, known as the Maputo Corridor. Dependence on this route has practical consequences: the BTI assessment notes that Eswatini needs Mozambican ports to export sugar to the European and U.S. markets. Planned investment could ease these constraints. A Mozambican rail upgrade is expected to raise freight capacity to 19 million tonnes annually, and it would also improve access to the Port of Maputo for landlocked neighbors such as Zimbabwe and Eswatini.\n\nRoad transport is the other pillar of connectivity. Roads account for approximately 4594km of which 1500km are paved and 3000km unpaved but is government-maintained gravel roads. Good all-weather roads link the main towns and extend to neighboring South Africa and Mozambique.\n\nThe combination of enclosure and small size also concentrates economic ties in one direction. The BTI report describes the two countries as closely linked although South Africa dominates it economically and socially. Trade through trade routes and the Southern African customs arrangements therefore rests on borders and ports that the kingdom does not control."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Relief, climate and water",
      "text": "Three east-west belts of terrain\n\nEswatini's relief forms a series of belts that step down from west to east. The Highveld runs along the western border on the edge of the Great Escarpment. Its average altitude is about 1,200 m, and its summit reaches roughly 1,862 m, the highest point in the country. Deep gorges cut through the Highveld, and its hills and waterfalls make it the most rugged part of the country. The capital, Mbabane, lies here.\n\nThe Middleveld lies east of the escarpment at an average of about 700 m. It is gently rolling, with fertile valleys and a mix of savanna and bush. It is the most densely populated region and contains Manzini, the main commercial and industrial centre, along with much of the country's farmland. The Lowveld, the lowest belt, is hot bush country. Most estimates place it between roughly 150 and 300 m, and the lowest recorded point, on the Great Usutu River, is about 21 m. The Lubombo Plateau forms a narrow escarpment along the eastern border at around 600 m, and it is cut by the gorges of the Ngwavuma, Usutu and Mbuluzi rivers.\n\nAltitude drives both climate and land use. Because the east and west borders are less than 200 km apart, the country's sharp elevation drop produces large differences over short distances. Cooler, wetter highland conditions support grazing and forestry, including pine plantations in parts of the Highveld. The warmer Middleveld suits mixed farming, and the Lowveld's irrigated sugar estates contrast with the surviving wild bush, where the major game reserves are located.\n\nSubtropical climate, seasonal rainfall and El Niño\n\nEswatini has a subtropical climate with hot, wet summers from about October to March and cool, dry winters from June to August. Most rain falls in summer, often as thunderstorms, and winter is the dry season. Rainfall declines from west to east. Estimates of the mean annual figure vary by dataset and period, but the national long-term average is commonly given as about 788 mm. Mean annual rainfall is often put at around 1,500 mm in the northern Highveld and around 500 mm in the southern Lowveld. Temperatures follow altitude as well: the mean annual temperature is about 17 °C on the Highveld and 22 °C in the Lowveld, where summer temperatures can approach 40 °C.\n\nRainfall is highly variable from year to year. This means that wet years bring flash floods, while dry years bring drought. Almost 70 percent of the population depends on rain-fed agriculture, and more than 40 percent of the country lies in the Lowveld agro-ecological zone, which receives less than 500 mm a year. Drought is therefore the principal climatic risk. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation is a major driver of this risk. The 2015–2016 El Niño produced the worst drought in the country since 1992. Maize output fell by roughly 30 to 40 percent, the main Hawane dam supplying the capital dropped to very low levels, rural boreholes ran dry, and many schools closed. Economic losses were estimated at about 7 percent of GDP in 2016. La Niña years are associated with a higher chance of above-average rainfall, although the link is not consistent from event to event. The Indian Ocean Dipole also affects rainfall in the region.\n\nClimate change is adding pressure to these patterns. Mean temperatures have risen by about 3 °C between 1961 and 2020, and heat waves have become more frequent. Droughts have grown more frequent and severe since the mid-1980s. A 2016 vulnerability assessment projected that river flows could fall by around 40 percent by 2050.\n\nRivers, groundwater and water supply\n\nMost of Eswatini's rivers flow eastward from the highlands through gorges towards Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. The Great Usutu, also known as the Maputo River, rises in the region and drains a basin of about 30,000 square kilometres across South Africa, Eswatini and Mozambique. The Mbuluzi rises in Eswatini and flows into Mozambique. The Ngwavuma rises in Eswatini, crosses into South Africa and then enters Mozambique. The Komati begins in the northwest of the country and reaches the Indian Ocean near Maputo. Because these rivers cross borders, water management involves neighbouring states.\n\nSurface water is unevenly distributed, and groundwater is therefore very important. Government policy documents state that Eswatini has no major underground aquifers, so yields from boreholes are generally low. Groundwater is used mainly for drinking water, especially in drought-prone areas. The country's reliance on groundwater, combined with the limited spread of surface water, creates a complex legal framework for managing water resources. Droughts expose this weakness: during the 2016 drought, storage at the Mnjoli Dam fell to under 5 percent of capacity, and water sources across the country declined sharply. Reduced stream flows, variable rainfall and the spread of invasive alien plants have also been linked to the drying of small streams and wetlands."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Biodiversity and conservation",
      "text": "Ecosystems and species\n\nEswatini's habitats follow a steep west-to-east gradient of altitude and rainfall. Cooler, wetter highveld supports montane grassland, riparian forest and patchy indigenous woodland. The hotter, drier lowveld and the Lubombo range to the east are dominated by savanna, bushveld and mopane woodland. Major river valleys and wetlands serve as movement corridors and dry-season refuges, which concentrates wildlife and shapes where larger mammals can persist. Montane grasslands are especially important for plants: they are home to about 72 percent of the country's endemic flora and its only endemic vertebrate. The eastern half of the country lies within the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot, and parts of two Centres of Plant Endemism and three Important Bird Areas are also present.\n\nPublished totals differ by source and definition. One compilation gives more than 820 vertebrate species and more than 2,400 plant species, many of them endemic. A national Red List summary cited by the FAO lists 89 vertebrate and 305 plant species as threatened or near threatened. Bird counts range from about 350 species in a 2016 national assessment to roughly 500 in tourism and other compilations, and the figures are not reconciled. Mammals include the critically endangered south-central black rhinoceros, and globally threatened species include the African elephant, wild dog, lion, leopard and several vulture species.\n\nProtected areas and their management\n\nThe protected-area network combines national, private and community-owned sites, including national parks, nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves. Hlane Royal National Park, the largest, was set aside from a royal hunting area and later proclaimed as a reserve in 1967. Mkhaya Game Reserve, with its acacia thornveld and black rhinoceros population, and Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary, often described as the birthplace of conservation in Eswatini, are among the best-known sites. Malolotja Nature Reserve covers highland grassland, and Mlawula Nature Reserve in the northeast covers about 165 square kilometres. The Eswatini National Trust Commission oversees several state reserves, while Big Game Parks manages flagship sites such as Hlane, Mkhaya and Mlilwane. Community-run areas include Shewula Community Nature Reserve, whose conservation income funds local projects such as orphan care and energy generation.\n\nThe share of land under formal protection is reported differently. Protected Planet data from 2020 put state-managed protected areas at 4.3 percent of the country, while other compilations give around 5 percent or a range of 4 to 6 percent depending on whether private conservancies are included. Reserve managers use controlled fire to keep grass cover high and limit bush encroachment. Eswatini established the Lubombo Biosphere Reserve in 2019 as part of UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves, and it works with Mozambique and South Africa through the Greater Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area.\n\nThreats and responses\n\nLand degradation and conversion to other uses are identified as the principal pressures on biodiversity. These include plantation agriculture, bush clearing, the spread of alien plants, unsustainable harvesting of plants and wood, and fragmentation of natural habitat. In the montane zone, the conversion of grassland to commercial forestry with alien pine and eucalyptus is a central concern, because plantations fragment habitats, change catchment hydrology and increase erosion risk. In the lowveld, the conversion of savanna and riparian land to irrigated sugarcane reduces habitat connectivity, increases water abstraction from the Usuthu and Komati systems and brings wildlife into closer contact with farms. Fuelwood collection and grazing in communal areas degrade woodland and grassland, particularly during droughts.\n\nInvasive alien plants are among the most widespread problems. More than 340 invasive alien plant species are recorded in the country, and at least 80 percent of its territory is reported to be affected by at least one of them. Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata are among the most important, and invasive wattles in the uplands can reduce water yield in catchments that supply towns and irrigation. Illegal collection and hunting have been major factors in the decline of many species. Responses include government and partner clearing programmes for alien plants, the protected-area and community-reserve model, and transboundary conservation work. Eswatini also submitted its first forest reference level to the United Nations in January 2024 as a baseline for measuring deforestation and emissions. Development programmes promoting conservation agriculture and agroforestry aim to reduce pressure on natural habitats while supporting livelihoods."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Origins of the Swazi state",
      "text": "Traditional accounts of migration and early settlement\n\nTraditional accounts present the Swazi state as the work of the Dlamini royal line. Ngwane was the son of Dlamini III and Queen LaYaka Ndwandwe. He took over the Dlamini chieftaincy and established settlements south of the Pongola River, later moving them to the north of the river banks. Historians commonly treat this move as the founding of the modern state. Ngwane ruled his kingdom from the south-east, in what is now the Shiselweni district, and his headquarters were called Zombodze. Ngwane's reign is usually dated to 1745 – 1780.\n\nDates for the migration itself differ between sources. A scholarly study places the settlement in the small settlement of hunters, pastoralists, and warriors established at Shiselweni (1760s), and treats it as the core of Swazi nationhood. Other accounts reach much further back. One source holds that the Swazi migrated from north East Africa through to Mozambique and eventually settled in Eswatini in the 15th century, while another states that the Swazi trace their origins to the Embo-Dlamini, a branch of the Embo-Nguni that originally settled in Tembeland, near present-day Delagoa Bay. The Swazi identity itself was not fixed in one moment. Historians stress that it generated, through time, a singular identity out of many groups, and that it comprised elements from a variety of Bantu-speaking peoples.\n\nConsolidation under successive rulers\n\nThe kingdom grew through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries under a sequence of rulers whose records are uneven. Ndvungunye, who reigned from 1780 to 1815, is one example: very little has been recorded of the quality of leadership under his reign. The reign of Sobhuza I is more often linked to the period of upheaval known as the Mfecane. Under Sobhuza's leadership, the Nguni and Sotho peoples as well as remnant San groups were integrated into the Swati nation. Sobhuza I is also the king to whom the nation's foundation is most often credited.\n\nThe greatest expansion came under Mswati II. Chronologies differ on his dates: one reference gives 1840–1868 as his reign, while another gives his birth as c. 1825 and his death as August 1865. Under him, the Swazi kingdom developed significantly ... and extended across a wide frontier region, from the Crocodile River in the north to the Pongola River in the south, and from the Lebombo Mountains in the east to the eastern Highveld in the west. Military strength and alliances were central to this growth. Groups that came to Swazi territory as refugees or migrants were often incorporated into the Swazi state as subordinate or client groups. The age-grade regiments, known as emabutfo, also reshaped society, and they permanently reshaped Swazi social structure.\n\nAfter Mswati's death in 1868, the expansion ended. His successors, Ludvongo and, after 1874, Mbandzeni, were unable to preserve Swazi power against Boer land claims and pursuit of minerals.\n\nRoyal institutions and ritual legitimacy\n\nThe monarchy rests on a dual structure. The king, called the Ngwenyama, is a hereditary ruler. Alongside him stands the mother of the reigning king, who holds the title Ndlovukati (lit. 'She-Elephant'), pl. tiNdlovukati; also spelled Indlovukazi, is the title of the female monarch of Eswatini. The Ndlovukati serves as a joint head of state, ruling alongside the Ngwenyama. In the traditional division of roles, the king is seen as the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is seen as the spiritual and national head of state.\n\nThe Ndlovukati's authority is tied to ritual. Her functions include control [of] important ritual substances (sometimes called medicines) and knowledge necessary for inaugurating of the rule of a Ngwenyama, rainmaking, and the annual renewal of national and kingly strength in the incwala rites. The incwala ceremony itself has an early link to the dynasty, since it was celebrated for the first time at Zombodze. The Ndlovukati also leads the nation as queen regent following a king's death and during the youth of the crown prince. Her power was explicitly understood as a counterweight to that of the Ngwenyama and also to potentially rival royal princes. Under Sobhuza II, however, the title became more ceremonial."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Colonial period and British protectorate",
      "text": "From the 1880s, the arrival of outsiders began to reshape the kingdom. White settlers arrived in greater numbers throughout the 1880s, after the discovery of gold in neighboring Transvaal and at Piggs Peak and Forbes Reef in Swaziland. King Mbandzeni, a son of Mswati II, granted large chunks of his territory in concessions to the new arrivals. These land-related grants covered agricultural, grazing, water, timber and mineral rights, and in 1889 a private revenue concession gave one concessionaire control over the king's income in return for a fixed annual payment of £12,000 . Sources report that the king could not read or write and was said to have signed some of these documents with a cross, and that he had been told the grants were not permanent . These overlapping claims were later cited in the conventions of 1884 and 1894, which reduced the kingdom's borders and paved the way for a protectorate under the South African Republic .\n\nConventions and Transvaal administration\n\nBritain recognised Swazi independence in an 1881 convention, but that agreement left the kingdom much smaller . The concessions and the administrative arrangements were both connected to the Foreign Jurisdiction Act of 1890, which placed the territory's administration under the South African Republic (Transvaal) . Accounts differ on the first step: one timeline describes a joint British–Transvaal provisional government in 1890 , while others date the decisive shift to the 1894 convention, which transferred full administrative control of Swaziland to the South African Republic (Transvaal), though Swazi kings retained nominal authority. In practice, the Transvaal's authority was never fully implemented, and Swazis largely continued to be governed by traditional methods .\n\nThe Anglo-Boer War and the protectorate\n\nWhen the Anglo-Boer War broke out, the territory's position changed again. After the British annexed the Transvaal at the end of the war in 1902, . The date of the protectorate itself varies by source: some histories give 1903 as the year Swaziland became a British protectorate , while others date it to 1906, when the kingdom became a High Commission Territory under a British commissioner . The protectorate was run through the High Commissioner's office in South Africa, an arrangement created in 1878 . Britain's approach to the land question was to divide the territory: the British . A 1907 Partitions Proclamation confirmed the concessionaires' control over about two-thirds of the land, a settlement the Swazi later contested .\n\nLand alienation and labour migration\n\nThe loss of land had lasting economic effects. . Colonial taxes and the administrative system pushed many men into work on mines, . Many Swazi men left home to earn money as mineworkers, partly to buy back parts of their land . The pattern of labour migration to South African mines continued for decades and reshaped Swazi society. Colonial-era economic development therefore served mainly outside interests, with the best land and the export-oriented sugar and citrus sectors developing after World War II .\n\nResistance and the monarchy's response\n\nRoyal figures sought to defend Swazi sovereignty during this period. Queen Mother Labotsibeni is remembered for her , and she served as regent from 1899 to 1921 . When Sobhuza II took the throne in 1921, , and in 1922 he travelled to London to petition King George V over the land question . Despite these efforts,  at independence in 1968. Limited self-government came only in 1963, and , on 6 September 1968."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Independence and the restoration of monarchy",
      "text": "Eswatini became a constitutional monarchy at independence in September 1968 under King Sobhuza II. The settlement followed further constitutional talks, held in London in 1965, and produced a document that was Westminster-type and a parliamentary democracy under a monarch who remained head of state. Sobhuza did not accept a purely party-based system. He founded the Imbokodvo National Movement in 1964 to counter Western-style parties that he believed would split the nation along ideological lines, and the movement swept the pre-independence elections. Multiparty competition therefore existed on paper, but the royal establishment had already shaped the field before 1968.\n\nThe constitutional order was short-lived. In the 1973 elections the opposition NNLC won three seats in parliament, which Sobhuza considered a threat to national unity. On 12 April 1973 he issued a decree that abolished the constitution, dissolved parliament, and banned all political parties and trade union activity, and he declared that he now held legislative, executive and judicial power. Some scholars describe the episode as a royal coup against parliament. The courts lost jurisdiction over detention cases, and the bill of rights was effectively set aside. Meetings of a political nature, including processions and demonstrations, had to be authorised by the Commissioner of the Police. The decree described party politics as foreign to Swazi life, and the Proclamation was issued as Proclamation No 1 of 1973. Assessments remain divided. A 2024 press report notes that conflicting opinions have emerged on whether April 12 is a day to commemorate a proclamation of self governance or one to regret a clampdown on political freedoms, and the same decree also established the Tinkhundla system of local constituencies.\n\nFrom 1973 to 1978 the king ruled without an elected Parliament, making laws by decree. Sources disagree on the date of the replacement constitution. One source states that a new constitution was promulgated 13 October 1978, but was not formally presented to the people. Another dates its presentation to 1977. The 1973 proclamation remained the status of supreme law until 2005, and the ban on parties has never been formally repealed (Political parties were banned in Eswatini in 1973 by King Sobhuza II and this proclamation has not been repealed.). The later constitutional arrangements are discussed in a separate section.\n\nSobhuza's death in 1982 opened a transition that placed the monarchy in the hands of his son. When Sobhuza II died on 21 August 1982 aged 83, the Liqoqo (Great Council of State) chose 14-year-old Makhosetive over his elder half-brothers, reportedly because his mother was a younger queen with few rival siblings. His mother, Ntfombi, was also queen regent of Eswatini from 1983 until her son's accession in 1986. Mswati was introduced as crown prince in September 1983. The regency had been intended to last until he reached 21, but a power struggle within the royal family, however, led to Makhosetive taking the crown when he was 18. He was crowned on 25 April 1986, making him the youngest reigning monarch in the world at the time.\n\nUnder Mswati III, the system established by his father has continued. He holds executive authority over all branches of government and is constitutionally immune from prosecution. One reference work describes him as having inherited an absolute monarchy from his father, who had ruled by decree. Britannica characterises his rule as autocratic and rife with corruption and excess, a judgement that reflects a critical view of the monarchy rather than a neutral description. The transition from a pluralistic parliamentary democracy to an absolute monarchy based on local traditions is therefore described by many observers as a process that began in 1973 and was consolidated over the following decades."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Monarchy, parliament and the Tinkhundla system",
      "text": "Executive power in Eswatini rests with the king, and the parliamentary bodies operate alongside that authority rather than above it. The parliament's own website describes the monarch as both ceremonial and executive head of state, and says that the constitution places supreme legislative authority in the king together with parliament. The King is vested with the roles of Ceremonial and Executive Head of State. Section 106 of the Constitution vests the supreme legislative authority of Eswatini in the \"the King-in-Parliament\". In practice, the king's position is stronger than these formal provisions suggest. Under the government's current arrangements, the monarch retains sweeping executive authority, including the power to appoint the prime minister and cabinet ministers, veto legislation, and dissolve Parliament at will. The BTI 2026 report goes further, stating that the king and queen mother hold veto power over all three branches of government, which it argues places them above the constitution. King Mswati III and his mother, Queen Mother Ntombi, reign as monarchs and hold veto power over the three branches of government, placing them above the constitution.\n\nThe role of the queen mother has a traditional basis. By tradition, the king reigns along with his mother or a ritual substitute, the Ndlovukati (lit. She-Elephant). Historically, the former was viewed as the administrative head of state and the latter as a spiritual and national head of state, with real power counterbalancing that of the king, but during the long reign of Sobhuza II the role of the Ndlovukati became more symbolic.\n\nThe prime minister is the head of government, but is chosen by the king. The prime minister, who is head of government is appointed by the king from among the members of the House on recommendations of the King's Advisory Council. The cabinet is recommended by the prime minister and approved by the king, exercises executive authority. Ministers must also sit in parliament: all members of Cabinet, including the PM, should be members of parliament before they can be appointed into Cabinet. The appointment of a prime minister therefore also makes that person an appointed member of the House of Assembly, as happened in 2023.\n\nThe bicameral parliament has a lower House of Assembly and an upper Senate, with both elected and appointed members. The published seat counts differ by source and date. The constitution sets a ceiling for the House of not more than seventy six (76) Members (MPs); with not more than sixty (60) directly elected and the rest nominated by the King. Current counts reported by Wikipedia list Seats: 76, currently 70, with 59 independents, 10 nominated members and the attorney general. Freedom House, in its 2022 report, described a 73-member House of Assembly, the lower chamber of the bicameral Parliament, includes 59 members elected by popular vote within the tinkhundla system. A further rule applies to women: If female representation does not exceed 30 percent of the lower house, an additional four women may be elected by the body.\n\nThe Senate has 30 members, and the composition is split between the two chambers. The King of Eswatini appoints 20, while the remaining ten are elected by the House of Assembly. The chambers differ in their legislative roles. The Senate may debate or pass a bill, with the exception of a \"money bill\", which must first be introduced in the lower chamber, the House of Assembly. Freedom House's assessment of the lower house is that members of Parliament hold no real power and effectively act as a rubber stamp in approving the king's legislative priorities.\n\nThe Tinkhundla system is both a unit of local government and the basis for electing members of parliament. Tinkhundla (singular: Inkhundla) is a system of local government and electoral constituencies. Candidates are nominated at the community level within each of the country's 59 constituencies, and the election proceeds in two rounds: the top three vote-getters from the first round advance to a runoff, from which a single winner is chosen. Parties cannot take part. Political representatives are elected as individuals at the community level, and political parties have been banned since 1973, so they cannot run in elections. The system was developed in stages. One account says that from 1973 to 1978, Sobhuza II ruled without an elected Parliament, making laws by decree, when the Tinkhundla system of Government was first put in place as an experiment. A 1981 proclamation later stated that the country \"shall continue to be a non-party state\".\n\nThe system is assessed in sharply different ways. The government presents it as a foundation of democracy. The Eswatini government perceives its tinkhundla decentralisation system as the cornerstone of democracy. Critics point to the role of traditional leaders in the selection process. Tinkhundla system, which allows local chiefs to vet candidates and influence outcomes in practice, according to Freedom House, and BTI reports allegations that local chiefs or traditional leaders screen candidates and often exclude women at the local level. A chapter in the Oxford collection on decentralisation argues that the system successfully consolidated the power of the monarchy in Eswatini. Questions about the system have also come from within the establishment, as the Senate passing a motion calling for a review of it in 1988."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Constitution, parties and civil liberties",
      "text": "Pressure for political change built up through the 1990s. Drawing inspiration from the struggle against apartheid, pro-democracy actors, including student and labor movements, increased pressure on the government throughout the 1990s. The protests culminated in the adoption of the 2005 constitution. The document, which is a constitution in the formal sense, includes a bill of rights. It guarantees freedoms of association and assembly, but it does not settle the status of political parties. It does not mention political parties, but does guarantee freedom of association, and a small party was registered on that basis. Its wording on rights has therefore been read in different ways.\n\nThe main dispute concerns parties. A royal decree of 1973, issued under King Sobhuza II, banned political parties, and that proclamation has never been repealed. Government officials have argued that the freedom of association guarantee does not extend to parties or to their role in elections. King Mswati III has given inconsistent public statements on the question. Electoral rules reinforce the position. Section 79 of the constitution describes a system based on individual merit, and all candidates run as independents, with traditional chiefs first nominating candidates at each inkhundla level. The Suppression of Terrorism Act of 2008 has been used against the main pro-democracy movements, and the People's United Democratic Movement (PUDEMO) and Swaziland Youth Congress (SWAYOCO) are outlawed under the Suppression of Terrorism Act of 2008. A United States recommendation to the UN Universal Periodic Review urged the government to state formally that the 2005 constitution had revoked the 1973 ban.\n\nTrade unions are active but face repeated restrictions. Eswatini has active, vocal labor unions, but workers' rights are poorly upheld in practice. Although workers in most sectors can join unions, strikes and other labor activism routinely trigger crackdowns and arrests by the police. The U.S. State Department's 2024 report states that the government at times used the prohibition on political matters to suppress protest activities by public sector unions, and it describes strike registration requirements that make legal strikes difficult. Civil society faces similar pressure. In 2022 the High Court upheld the refusal to register the NGO Eswatini Gender and Sexual Minorities, but in June 2023, the Supreme Court unanimously overturned a decision that banned Eswatini Sexual and Gender Minorities (ESGM) from registering as a nonprofit organization. Freedom of assembly is also limited in practice. Freedom House rates it 0 out of 4 and reports that demonstrations are often violently dispersed by police, and protesters risk arrest and detention. Laws on sedition and public order are central to these concerns. The 1938 Sedition and Subversive Activities Act and the Public Order Act of 2017 are described by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights as routinely weaponized by the state to suppress dissenting voices.\n\nAssessments of judicial independence and human rights come mainly from international bodies and monitoring organisations, and they are consistently critical. Freedom House's indices rate Eswatini at 17 out of 100 in Freedom in the World 2025, with 1 out of 40 on political freedoms and 16 out of 60 for civil liberties, and it concluded that Eswatini is \"not free.\" On the judiciary, Freedom House notes that the king holds ultimate authority over the appointment and removal of judges, acting on advice from the Judicial Service Commission (JSC) made up of royal appointees. Human Rights Watch cited the 2024 sentences of former MPs Mduduzi Bacede Mabuza and Mthandeni Dube as evidence of the lack of impartiality and independence of the judiciary. In August 2024 the Supreme Court upheld the Suppression of Terrorism Act and restrictive sections of the Sedition and Subversive Activities Act, a ruling that international rights groups and the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) condemned. The ICJ's 2025 report on judges and lawyers also documented the chilling effect of the 2023 killing of human rights lawyer Thulani Maseko, for which the authorities have failed to apprehend the killers. The government has invited scrutiny, and the African Commission visited in July 2025 at its invitation. Its findings and those of the ICJ, Human Rights Watch and Freedom House are therefore independent external assessments, while the authorities' own legal interpretation rests on the text of Section 79 and the 1973 decree."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Population, ethnicity and languages",
      "text": "Population size and density\n\nRecent estimates of Eswatini's population fall between about 1.2 and 1.27 million, and the exact figure depends on the reference year and the method. The most recent full census counted 1,093,238 people in 2017, so later figures are mainly projections based on United Nations data. Worldometer gives 1,269,859 for mid-2026, while other compilations use rounded figures near 1.2 million or an earlier 2023 estimate of 1,236,126. Growth is modest, at roughly 1 percent a year. Earlier counts also show that migration affects the totals: the 2007 census recorded fewer people than the 1997 census, a difference attributed to large-scale emigration of Swazis to South Africa in search of work.\n\nAcross the country of about 17,364 square kilometres, average density is roughly 67 to 74 people per square kilometre, depending on the estimate used. Urban shares cited in different sources range from about 25 to 32 percent, so the population is predominantly rural, although the proportion living in towns is rising.\n\nEthnic composition\n\nThe population is overwhelmingly Swazi. The 2017 census classed about 97 percent of residents as emaSwati, with the remaining 3 percent recorded as other groups. The Swazi are a Bantu people of the Nguni cluster, and the same ethnic group also lives in South Africa's Mpumalanga province, so Swazi identity extends beyond the national border. Most Swazis ascribe a special spiritual role to the royal family, which links ethnic identity closely with the monarchy.\n\nA small non-Swazi minority is present, but published sources describe it in broad terms and give few precise figures. The groups most often mentioned include Zulu people, refugees and migrants from Mozambique, Portuguese settlers, Afrikaners, Asians, and some Europeans, who typically work in the business sector. Because the 2017 census grouped all non-Swazi residents into a single residual category, the size and status of each minority community is difficult to establish from official data.\n\nLanguages\n\nEswatini has two official languages, siSwati and English, and the 2005 constitution names both. siSwati is a Southern Bantu language closely related to Zulu and is the first language of most Swazis, with about 95 percent of Swazis speaking it. It is taught in all national schools, literacy in the language is high, and it is used in the mass media. Parliamentary proceedings may take place in either language.\n\nEnglish is the language of government administration, commercial business and the press, and it is the main medium of instruction in schools. This arrangement is debated. Language-policy research notes that English remains the principal vehicle for economic development and international trade, while siSwati is often treated as a second choice for classroom instruction despite its official status. In daily life, siSwati dominates in homes, markets and informal exchanges, whereas English is used in formal, professional and institutional settings.\n\nSeveral other languages are spoken by smaller communities. Zulu and Tsonga are the most widely cited minority languages, reflecting ties with neighbouring South Africa and Mozambique. Chichewa, Sotho and other immigrant languages are also present, and Afrikaans and Portuguese are spoken within particular communities. These languages are used mainly in private and community life rather than in public administration."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Ceremonies and cultural practice",
      "text": "Umhlanga and the royal calendar\n\nThe Umhlanga, or Reed Dance, is the most widely known annual event in the country, and it takes place at the end of August or at the beginning of September. Sources disagree on its length. One describes it as the eight-day event, while Britannica says it lasts for five days. Its stated practical purpose concerns the royal home: the custom began as an annual task to use the reeds to make repairs on the windbreaks (reed fences) round the royal residence. Participants cut reeds along riverbanks and carry them back to the royal village, where they are presented to the Queen Mother, the Indlovukazi.\n\nAccounts of origin also differ. One version traces the event to the older \"umcwasho\" custom. Under that practice, unmarried girls were grouped into age-regiments. Wikipedia's entry states that Umhlanga was created in Eswatini in the 1940s under the rule of Sobhuza II, and is an adaptation of the much older Umchwasho ceremony. Tourism sources, by contrast, describe the tradition as one whose traditions date back centuries.\n\nMonarchy, young women and the public day\n\nThe ceremony's social meaning rests on its link between the monarchy and unmarried women. Only childless, unmarried girls can take part. Some promotional material adds that virginity is a pre-requisite for participation, though this is a traditional rule rather than one set out in law. The dancing reaches its height on the seventh day, when the king is present. Each regiment dances before him in turn. That day is a public holiday, and it is the one most visitors attend.\n\nAttendance figures vary widely. A tourism operator cites up to 40,000 girls, whereas a photo agency's caption refers to up to 100,000 young Swazi women. The dates are set late, because they are based on ancestral astrology. Observers have remarked that its ever-increasing popularity in Eswatini defies the apparent decline of traditional culture.\n\nIncwala and the kingship\n\nThe Incwala is the other principal ritual, and it is tied directly to the king. It is often rendered in English as a first-fruits festival, but the tasting of the new harvest is only one part of the rite. Some sources translate the term as Kingship Ceremony. When there is no king, there is no Incwala. The ceremony is held around the summer solstice. Because Eswatini lies in the Southern Hemisphere, it happens in December, and its timing is linked to the full moon nearest the summer solstice.\n\nIts stated aims include uniting the nation, seeking the blessing of ancestors, reinforcing kingship and marking the start of the harvest season. Specialised priests known as the Bemanti, or \"people of water\", travel to gather sea and river water. One group sets sail to gather sea foam, which is believed to have healing properties, while another follows the rivers Mbuluzi, Komanzi and Lusutfu. Public parts are open to all: every Swazi may take part in the public parts of the Incwala. The inner rites are restricted, and the songs dances and ritual that take place inside the Royal Kraal remain a matter of utmost secrecy and may not be recorded. The climax comes when the King of Eswatini, Mswati III, in full ceremonial dress, joins his warriors in the traditional dance and then eats the first fruits. Sources also differ on duration, describing it as a period of time of about a month in one case and as spanning three lunar cycles in another.\n\nMusic, dance, crafts and oral tradition\n\nMusic and dance also operate outside the royal calendar. Ceremonial performances include Sibhaca, a vigorous dance with high kicks, and Emadlangeni, a rite of passage dance. Performances usually rely on drums, rattles, and flutes, and the traditional makhweyane is a single-stringed, gourd-resonated musical bow.\n\nCraft traditions have included beadwork, pottery and grasswork. Historically Swazi people have made jewellery and clothing items from beads. Clay vessels called tindziwo were used for carrying water and brewing, grass mats called emacansi and tihlantsi were made, and wooden sculptures were also very popular as utensils. Oral storytelling is another significant form, and oral storytelling being a significant tradition is noted in cultural overviews.\n\nPreservation efforts take several forms. The cultural village at Mantenga, near the falls of the same name, is a living museum that offers visitors a unique insight into traditional Swazi culture and heritage. It also serves as an important hub for preserving and promoting traditional practices. Commentators stress young people's role in continuity, noting that encouraging the younger generation to take pride in their heritage is crucial for the continuity of Swazi traditions and customs."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Macroeconomic conditions and public finance",
      "text": "Output expanded faster in 2025 than the IMF had earlier projected. The Fund's 2026 Article IV assessment puts real GDP growth at 4.9 percent in 2025, supported by large public and private investment projects. That result was above the 4.3% previously projected for that year. Output for the first nine months of FY2025/26 is put at 5.2 percent. For 2026 the Fund expects a slowdown, linked to higher fuel costs, weaker global demand, tighter financing conditions, weather-related disruptions, and easing of investment activity. Its severe-shock scenario points to weaker growth, higher inflation, and faster-rising public debt. A prolonged Middle East conflict could raise fuel and fertilizer prices, while drought and erratic rainfall could cut farm output and push up food prices. Estimates from other institutions differ: one World Bank economic update gives 4.0 percent for 2025 and projects growth of 3.9 percent in 2026.\n\nThe fiscal position weakened sharply in FY2025/26. The deficit rose sharply to 6.1 percent of GDP from 1.1 percent the previous year, largely reflecting public wage increases and higher public investment. Public debt moved from 40 percent of GDP at end-FY24/25 to 44.7 percent of GDP at end-FY25/26. The budgeted deficit for FY2026/27 is 5.9 percent of GDP, and debt is expected to reach 50 percent of GDP by end-FY26/27. The medium-term framework relies on fiscal consolidation: a cumulative reduction of 6.2 percentage points of GDP in the structural primary balance (excluding SACU revenue) through FY31/32. On that path, debt would peak at over 52 percent of GDP before declining to about 45 percent by end-FY31/32. The government has also turned to concessional external loans, which have helped lower borrowing costs. The IMF's earlier review noted that Eswatini faces higher borrowing costs than neighboring countries, likely reflecting a higher risk premium. Customs-union receipts are a large and volatile source of revenue: they are budgeted at 11.4 billion emalangeni for 2026 and 2027, roughly a third of revenue and grants.\n\nLabour-market weakness persists alongside growth. The IMF's 2026 figure for unemployment is 33.5 percent, which the Fund describes as high despite strong growth. Earlier figures from other years are higher: the Fund's 2025 review cited unemployment at 34 percent, with youth unemployment reaching 58 percent in 2023, and the World Bank cites 35.4 percent in 2023 (unemployment rates in this table refer to different years and survey bases, so they should not be compared directly).\n\nInflation fell considerably over 2024 and 2025. Average consumer price inflation decelerated in 2024 to average 4 percent, and the World Bank reports that annual headline inflation slowed from 4% in 2024 to 3.1% in 2025. Monthly data from the Central Statistical Office show annual inflation slowed to 1.6 per cent in March 2026, down from 1.9 per cent in February 2026 and significantly lower than 3.8 per cent recorded in March 2025. The trend reversed in April, when the annual inflation rate accelerated to 2.0 per cent in April 2026 from 1.6 per cent recorded in March, with housing and utilities contributing most of the rise. By July the rate had eased to 2.5% in July 2026, as food price deflation partly offset a sharp increase in fuel prices. The Central Bank of Eswatini has kept its policy rate at 6.75% since May 2025, and in its March projections it expected inflation to average 3.3 per cent for 2026.\n\nSome reference figures are much older and come from different years. A general country profile still lists inflation (CPI): 6.1% (2011 est.) and unemployment: 40% (2006 est.), so these should not be read as current conditions."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Agriculture, manufacturing and services",
      "text": "Agriculture\n\nFarming supports a large share of households, although it contributes a modest and volatile part of output. Many rural families earn a living either from small plots that feed the household or as paid workers on larger farms and estates Most households derive their income from agriculture activities, either as small-scale subsistence farmers or as employees of the medium and large-scale farms and estates. Maize is the staple food crop and is primarily grown for subsistence purposes. Smallholders produce most of it: over 90 percent of the country's maize, a dietary staple, is produced by smallholder farmers. Yields are low, with the average estimated at 1.2 tons per hectare in 2024. Because the country consistently falls below its domestic food needs, it remains dependent on food imports.\n\nSugarcane is the most important commercial crop. Eswatini is among the leading sugarcane producers in the region, exporting 92 percent of total output. Ownership is layered. In the USDA's 2022 breakdown, miller-owned estates contribute the largest share of sugar cane production (49 percent), followed by smallholder growers (21 percent), large-scale growers (18 percent). The USDA classifies smallholders as those with less than 50 hectares. Irrigation is essential because of recurring dry spells. Sugar predominates, but cotton, rice, groundnuts, sorghum and citrus are also grown. The Lowveld carries most of this production whereas the Lowveld produces most of the country's sugar. Cotton, citrus and wood pulp add to the commercial base.\n\nOutput is vulnerable to weather and disease. During the El Niño drought of 2024, agricultural output stayed flat, with gains in sugar cane offset by declines in maize and cotton production. A foot-and-mouth outbreak was expected to shrink livestock and animal-product exports in 2025 caused by the foot-and-mouth disease outbreak. For the 2026/27 season, the USDA forecasts that sugar cane production will increase by two percent from MY 2025/26, based on expanded planted area and normal weather conditions. Smallholder sugar growers have also received EU support: about 7 500 hectares being developed for smallholder sugarcane farmers, benefitting more than 3 000 households. Diversification into higher-value crops is under way, with the World Bank noting expansion into strawberries, watermelons, and sunflowers.\n\nManufacturing\n\nManufacturing has become the main driver of recent growth. The IMF linked 2024 expansion primarily to manufacturing, notably beverages and services, and exports rose sharply that year on higher sugar volumes and prices Exports increased strongly (17.3 percent), supported by higher sugar production and prices.\n\nBeverage concentrate is one of the most valuable exports. Central Bank data cited in the press show that soft drink concentrates, which remain one of Eswatini's leading export products, generated E1.3 billion during April 2026. Sugar milling is also significant. Three mills, held by two companies, process cane. Domestic demand comes from soft drinks, confectionery and jam-making industries. Taken together, two industries carry most of Eswatini's non-transfer economy, and both face pressure.\n\nThe textile and apparel sector is among the top export earners. It supports an estimated 20,000 jobs and plays a major role in the national economy. Its growth rests on the United States' African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), enacted in 2000. After Eswatini joined in 2001, it gained duty-free access to the United States for several products, including garments. Within three years of joining AGOA, Eswatini's garment exports to the United States reportedly tripled. Eligibility was suspended in 2014 over labour concerns and restored in December 2017, and the apparel visa system was re-authorised in July 2018 the country was reinstated on 23 December 2017. The apparel visa system, which permits allows preferential exports of apparel.\n\nThe sector's markets are highly concentrated. South Africa absorbs 89 per cent of all textile-garment exports, while the United States accounts for 7 per cent. The Eswatini Investment Promotion Authority warns that dependence on these two buyers has become riskier as AGOA draws to a close and South African localisation targets tighten Eswatini's heavy reliance on these two markets has turned quite riskier. A Manchester Global Development Institute blog post goes further, saying almost 100 percent of Eswatini Clothing production that is geared to export is now geared to exports to South Africa. Production costs are rising. Electricity is around 40% of unit operating costs, and a value-added tax on water took effect in February 2026.\n\nServices and mining\n\nServices contributed to growth as well. Information and communications were especially prominent in 2024 notably beverages and services, especially information and communications. Tourism has been identified as a source of potential, with the country's tourism potential listed alongside agro-industry and clothing as relatively developed strengths. Mining is narrow: the economy includes forestry and mining (coal), and quarry stone is also extracted.\n\nThe economy is not diversified. Coface describes agriculture, manufactured exports (sugar, soft drink concentrate, mold binders), coal, quarry stone, tourism as its main sources of output. Dependence on South Africa is pronounced. For the 2024/25 marketing year, South Africa took most of Eswatini's sugar exports, making the economy highly exposed to its larger neighbour."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Currency peg and the Southern African customs union",
      "text": "The lilangeni (plural emalangeni) has been tied to the South African rand at parity since the currency was introduced in 1974, when it replaced the rand at par. Before this, the lilangeni was introduced in 1974 by the Monetary Authority of Swaziland to replace the South African Rand at par. Both currencies remained pegged at par since replacement. The rand continues to circulate widely alongside the lilangeni. The link sits within the Common Monetary Area (CMA), which replaced the earlier Rand Monetary Area in 1986 after the rand's depreciation, and which allows funds to move without restriction among Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa.\n\nFor monetary-policy, the peg leaves little room for independent action. Eswatini's currency is pegged to the South African rand, effectively relinquishing Eswatini's monetary policy to South Africa. In practice, the Central Bank of Eswatini follows the South African Reserve Bank's direction. In September 2026 it raised its own rate to 7 percent, days after South Africa's hike, and the IMF had earlier advised it in August to calibrate its rate against the SARB's and be ready to defend the peg. Because the exchange rate itself is fixed, adjustments to shocks have to occur through interest rates, inflation and fiscal-policy instead.\n\nThe Southern African Customs Union (SACU) grew out of colonial-era arrangements. In 1889, a Customs Union Convention was held between the British Colony of the Cape of Good Hope and the Orange Free State Boer Republic, preceding the formal establishment of SACU in July 1910. The Kingdom of Swaziland joined this enlarged Customs Union in 1904, and the 1910 agreement was concluded between the Union of South Africa and the High Commission territories, including Swaziland. The union is widely described as the oldest existing customs union in the world. Its members apply a common external tariff and remove internal barriers on trade, and the agreement has been revised several times, with the current text dating from 2002 and taking effect in July 2004. The defining characteristic of SACU is the unusually high degree of inequality in the levels of development amongst its member states.\n\nCustoms revenue is pooled and shared, and it has become central to Eswatini's budget. Published estimates differ on its weight. The IMF's 2025 Article IV assessment states that SACU transfers have averaged 39 percent of total revenue and fluctuated between 7.3 and 14.1 percent of GDP over the past five years. The fiscal year 2024/25 figure was unusually high, with historically high SACU revenues of 14.2 percent of GDP, which was 3.9 percentage points above the historical average. Other sources give higher shares: Coface's country file reports that SACU revenues accounted for 46% of total revenue, and the World Bank describes them as accounting for about 40 percent of government resources.\n\nThe vulnerability of this income comes from its source. Revenue depends on the trade flows of the wider union, and the source of 98% of SACU receipts is South African trade. For this reason the IMF measures the structural primary balance excluding SACU receipts, which shows the underlying fiscal position without the pool. Forecasts for 2026 point in different directions: the IMF's 2026 mission noted that the FY26/27 deficit was budgeted at 5.9 percent of GDP, partly because of higher SACU revenues, while the World Bank has described future levels as uncertain. A stabilisation fund is designed to cushion the drop when receipts fall."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Income distribution, poverty and royal commercial interests",
      "text": "Poverty and inequality figures for Eswatini come from different years and thresholds, so they are best read side by side. The World Bank's recent overview reports that 54% of the population lived below the Lower Middle Income Consumption poverty line of $4.20 per day (PPP 2021) in 2025, and gives a Gini coefficient of 51.2. The IMF's 2025 Article IV assessment instead uses a Gini figure of 54.6 from 2016 and a poverty rate of 59 percent for 2023 contributing to a poverty rate of 59 percent (2023). Earlier UN material cites a Gini coefficient of 0.51 for 2019. The gap between these estimates reflects both changing survey methods and the use of different poverty lines, so the most recent figures should be treated as indicative rather than exact.\n\nPoverty is concentrated in rural areas. A World Bank diagnostic found that in 2017, the rural poverty rate was 70.1 percent, as against 19.6 percent in urban areas, and that over 90 percent of poor people live in rural areas. The same report notes that poverty fell after 2001 in rate terms, yet the absolute number of poor people increased. Within the country, the poorest areas in Eswatini are rural regions without any sizeable towns: Lubombo and Shiselweni.\n\nThe concentration of income and productive assets is linked by the World Bank to unequal access to land, education and capital. Its framework describes primary income distribution as influenced by differential access to, use of, and returns to assets (such as education, labor, land and capital). Within the Southern African Customs Union, the Bank's country brief concludes that Eswatini has made the slowest progress in reducing inequality among the SACU countries. Land history adds a further layer: during the colonial period, two thirds of Swaziland were appropriated for commercial development, while the remainder was reserved for Swazi citizens.\n\nThe debate over how inequality relates to the political system runs along two lines. International financial institutions tend to treat inequality mainly as an economic problem. The IMF's research notes that inequality can impede economic growth by leading to social or political instability, as well as jeopardizing human capital accumulation. Critics of the monarchy go further and point to governance arrangements. Reporting on royal finances notes that there is no parliamentary oversight of the royal family's business dealings, and Mswati is constitutionally immune from prosecution. Reported statements from the monarchy, by contrast, describe some holdings as being kept for the national good; one account quotes the king as holding an asset in trust for the people of Swaziland.\n\nThe principal vehicle for royal business interests is Tibiyo Taka Ngwane. It was created by Sobhuza II in 1968 and holds shares in a range of companies. In sugar, it is the leading shareholder of the Royal Eswatini Sugar Corporation, with the majority shareholder being Tibiyo Taka Ngwane with 53.1%, and the corporation is said to account for two-thirds of the nation's sugar production, along with a significant output of ethanol. In beverages, the fund's stake in Eswatini Beverages is described as a collaborative effort between Tibiyo Taka Ngwane and SAB Miller Africa BV of the Netherlands, and the brewer dominates the beer market in Eswatini with a market share of 87%. Fund holdings also include a stake in the hotel group Swazi Spa Holdings, the newspaper publisher Eswatini Observer, and a dairy business, according to a 2023 profile.\n\nThe wider effects of these holdings are contested. An investigative outlet estimates that the royal family's businesses may control about 50% of the country's economy, a figure that is not independently verified in the sources reviewed here, and reports that pro-democracy campaigners have called for boycotts of business entities linked to King Mswati and the royal family. Unrest has also affected these firms: reporting on the 2021 unrest notes that businesses associated with the royal family were vandalised. Separately, an investigation by the International Consortium of Journalists in 2024, based on a leak from a local financial oversight body, suggested that such arrangements could help sustain a large illicit economy in the tiny kingdom of 1.2 million people, a conclusion that the monarchy and its companies would need to answer on their own terms."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Public health and the HIV epidemic",
      "text": "Eswatini has the highest adult HIV prevalence in the world, and this shapes almost every health indicator. Estimates differ by source and year. UNAIDS' 2024 figures put prevalence among adults aged 15–49 at 23.4%, with 28.1% among women and 18.4% among men. The SHIMS 3 national survey, fielded from 2021, reported 24.8% among adults aged 15 and over. Earlier household surveys of ages 18–49 found prevalence of around 30–32% in 2011 and 2016. The figures are therefore not directly comparable, and the difference partly reflects changes in age groups and methods.\n\nThe national response began with a political decision. King Mswati III declared HIV a national emergency in 1999, and the government began a large scale-up of treatment and prevention services in 2011. The 2011–2016 surveys show the effect of that scale-up. Prevalence stayed roughly stable, but incidence fell by 48%, from 2.48% to 1.30%. Stable prevalence alongside falling incidence indicates that people with HIV were living longer on treatment while fewer people became newly infected. Later data show further declines. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that annual infections fell from about 14,000 in 2010 to under 4,000 in 2024, and the SHIMS 3 survey estimated about 4,000 new adult infections per year.\n\nTreatment and viral suppression indicators are among the strongest in the region. UNAIDS' 2024 estimates indicate that 98% of people with HIV know their status, 94% of those who know it are on treatment, and 92% of those on treatment are virally suppressed. Gaps remain for particular groups. SHIMS 3 found that women bear a heavier burden, with more than half of women aged 35–49 living with HIV, and that viral suppression lagged among men aged 25–34. Sex workers have one of the highest recorded prevalence levels in the world, at roughly 60%. Some sources also note that PEPFAR support, the United States program that has financed much of the response with the CDC and implementing partners such as ICAP at Columbia University, was sharply reduced in 2025, leaving some people without testing or treatment. Differentiated service delivery, introduced into national guidelines after 2014, offers several models of antiretroviral supply, such as multi-month dispensing, to relieve crowded health centres.\n\nHealth system organisation and service delivery\n\nThe Ministry of Health, working through the Eswatini National AIDS Programme and the National Tuberculosis Control Programme, coordinates most disease-specific services. The system includes health centres, regional referral hospitals and national referral hospitals, with two national hospitals specialising in non-communicable disease and psychiatric care. Primary care is relatively free of charge, but several sources describe its quality as uneven. Nurses have held demonstrations over working conditions and drug shortages. Recurrent stock-outs of essential medicines and a lack of standard operating procedures for managing patients with co-existing conditions have been documented at health facilities. Health services are concentrated in urban areas, which, according to one encyclopaedic source, serve only about a fifth of the population, and specialist mental health services are very limited.\n\nTuberculosis and non-communicable diseases\n\nTuberculosis is the most significant infectious challenge after HIV, and the two are closely linked. The CDC notes that TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV, and roughly 70% of TB patients who know their HIV status are HIV-positive. TB incidence was extremely high in the early 2000s, when the disease killed about 18 people per 100,000 each year. Incidence then fell from about 1,069 per 100,000 in 2009 to 363 in 2019, according to a study cited by the national TB literature, although later WHO figures for 2021 and 2022 report 319 and 325 per 100,000 respectively. Drug-resistant strains have become a growing concern, and the national strategy aims to make Eswatini TB-free by 2035.\n\nAs deaths from infectious disease decline, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are taking up a larger share of the health burden. Diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and cancer are rising, and screening for these conditions is increasingly integrated into TB and HIV clinics. A study of outpatient visits estimated that about 15% of visits in 2020 were for NCDs, with about 4% related to diabetes. Mental health is another gap, linked in the literature to poverty, sexual violence, substance use and HIV. Road traffic deaths also represent a significant share of mortality. In 2021, about 52% of the 15,801 recorded deaths were attributed to communicable, maternal, perinatal and nutritional causes, and about 35% to non-communicable causes, according to WHO data.\n\nLife expectancy, mortality and recent trends\n\nReported life expectancy at birth depends heavily on the source and the year of the estimate. The WHO series shows an increase from about 46.8 years in 2000 to 55.7 years in 2019, followed by a decline to about 54.6 years by 2021, reflecting the effects of the HIV and TB burden and of the COVID-19 pandemic. More recent model-based estimates for 2023–2024 are considerably higher. Our World in Data gives 64.1 years for 2023, with 67.0 years for women and 61.2 years for men, while other compilations give about 64.5 years for both sexes. Earlier estimates, such as a 2022 entry in a general encyclopaedia, gave about 59.7 years. Healthy life expectancy, a WHO measure, is estimated at around 47.5 years.\n\nChild mortality has changed markedly. The under-five mortality rate, according to UNICEF, rose from 66.3 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990 to a peak of 118.0 in 2004, before falling to 47.3 in 2022 and 45.1 in 2024. Infant mortality estimates vary, from about 36 to nearly 40 per 1,000 live births depending on the year and compilation. Maternal mortality was estimated at 240 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2020. Improvements in HIV treatment, TB control and child health are the main factors cited for recovery after the early-2000s decline, although the figures above should be read with attention to differing methodology and reference years."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Education, media and digital development",
      "text": "Education\n\nEswatini's schooling is organised into four key levels: early childhood care, development, and education (ECDE); primary education; secondary education; and post-school education and training (PSET) which comprises tertiary education and technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Free primary education, introduced in 2010, is central to the system and to the government's spending priorities (the high priority the country gives to the education sector in terms of overall public spending and the introduction of Free Primary Education in 2010). A standard pathway runs on a 7-5-4 structure: seven years of primary school from Grade 1 to Grade 7, three years of junior secondary, and two years of senior secondary. The Examinations Council of Eswatini sets assessments at Grades 7, 10 and 12 (administer assessments and examinations for primary school (Grade 7), junior secondary level (Grade 10), and senior secondary level (Grade 12)).\n\nCompletion is high at primary level but weaker lower down. In 2019, the primary school completion rate was at 86 percent in 2019 for boys and 91 percent for girls, while the lower secondary completion rate was at 69% for boys and 71% for girls in 2019. Learning outcomes are a separate concern: schooling does not imply learning, but lack of learning increases the likelihood of dropping out of school. Language policy adds another layer. Primary instruction is mainly in siSwati, with English introduced from Standard 1, and English becomes the main medium from secondary level (The medium of instruction in primary schools is primarily Siswati (the local language), with English introduced from Standard 1 onwards. From secondary level onwards, English becomes the primary medium of instruction.). Provision for pupils with disabilities is limited to a small number of specialised schools, such as those for the visually impaired, the deaf and autistic children, alongside vocational centres for disabled persons. These are concentrated in particular regions (Manzini region, St Joseph's primary and secondary school for the blind or visually impaired, Lubombo region is the School for the deaf).\n\nTertiary education is concentrated along the Manzini–Mbabane corridor. The University of Eswatini is the national university and the only institution offering research level and post-graduate facilities in the country. Its main campus at Kwaluseni hosts the faculties of commerce, education, humanities and science, while the Mbabane campus houses health sciences (The main campus is at Kwaluseni, which was financed jointly by the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, the Anglo American Corporation, and the Eswatini government.). The institution's stated mandate is to support national development through the production of skilled personnel (its chief mandate, which is to assist in the national development effort through manpower production). Many students still enrol in institutions in neighbouring countries, notably South Africa (Many students enroll in universities and colleges in neighboring countries such as South Africa.). Teacher education is a significant part of the sector, and the University's Faculty of Education reports over 1,000 students across its certificate, diploma and degree programmes (The Faculty of Education is home to over 1000 students pursuing Certificate, Diploma, Bachelor of Education and Post Graduate Certificate in Education.). Human capital formation, measured through human capital and literacy outcomes, depends on the quality of these links between schooling and skills.\n\nMedia\n\nThe public broadcaster is the Eswatini Broadcasting and Information Service, a state-owned provider of broadcast and print information. It was founded in 1966 as a radio broadcaster, and was merged with print media in the early 1970s. Its remit covers radio and television broadcasting services; newspapers, magazines, and other printed governmental publications; government information services, including internet; accreditation of foreign news reporters and correspondents operating in Eswatini. Television arrived later: Television was introduced to Eswatini (at the time Swaziland) in 1978. Today there are only two local television channels, the state-run Eswatini TV (formerly Swazi TV) and the privately owned Channel Yemaswati (formerly Channel S).\n\nPrint media is small. One account describes a small but active print media sector. Newspapers such as Times of Eswatini and Swazi Observer provide news and information, with a strong emphasis on government and royal affairs. Private outlets exist alongside these. Founded in 2007 and based in Mbabane, Independent News Eswatini is a private media house, and private radio stations also operate, though their output is reported to avoid criticism of the monarchy or government (While there are a few privately-owned radio stations, such as Tigi FM and SBIS, these are also subject to government oversight. The content on private radio stations generally avoids topics that are critical of the monarchy or the government.).\n\nAssessments of media independence diverge sharply. Reporters Without Borders argues that there is almost no viable way of producing independent news and information because the very existence of media outlets is conditioned on their support for the monarchy. It also reports that almost all media outlets are controlled, directly or indirectly, by Mswati III, and that the minister responsible for information and communications is one of the king's daughters. Ownership changes at the Times of Eswatini have sharpened this debate. A journalism lecturer cited in local reporting argued that independent media no longer exists in the country, pointing to the state of national radio and television and to the ownership of the Times and the Eswatini Observer. The Eswatini National Association of Journalists, by contrast, hopes that the new owner will protect the paper's reputation and journalistic standards (ESNAJ believes that Shakantu places a high premium on the Times brand and will not do anything to jeopardise it.). The press freedom question therefore turns on ownership, regulation and the practical risks faced by critical journalists, and the sources on each side give very different weight to these factors.\n\nDigital services and financial inclusion\n\nDigital development is organised mainly through the Ministry of Information, Communication and Technology, the Eswatini Post and Telecommunications Corporation, and the central bank. The postal network is seen as a route to services beyond mail. Through its 34 strategically located post office branches, EPTC created an opportunity for government services to become more accessible to citizens, including those living far from major urban centres. The ministry's permanent secretary has proposed converting post offices into community digital centres, arguing that they have an extensive physical presence, established public trust and ability to reach communities that commercial enterprises may consider uneconomical to serve.\n\nFinancial inclusion is a formal policy priority. The National Financial Inclusion Strategy 2023–2028 was launched in May 2024, and the Ministry of Finance's Centre for Financial Inclusion led its preparation and implementation (the Ministry of Finance, particularly the Centre for Financial Inclusion (CFI) for its pivotal role in championing the development and driving the implementation of the National Financial Inclusion Strategy 2023–2028.). The central bank has also formally embedded financial inclusion into its core policy objectives and created a dedicated division to coordinate the work. Its payment reforms are part of the same agenda: the country's first National Fintech Strategy (2025–2030) aims at a trusted, well-regulated and competitive digital finance ecosystem, and the central bank has prioritised a national payment switch after testing a digital form of the lilangeni (The National Fintech Strategy 2025–2030 promotes interoperable payments, innovation and financial inclusion, while the central bank has prioritised a national payment switch after testing the Digital Lilangeni.). The legal basis for electronic transactions includes the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 2022, which recognises electronic records, signatures, contracts and consumer protections.\n\nSeveral constraints remain. Rural and underserved communities are the main gap: the postal and digital initiatives are explicitly aimed at people who are financially excluded, particularly among people in rural and underserved communities. Physical addresses are another obstacle. Under the national addressing standard, projects in Ezulwini and Matsapha are already at an advanced stage, while Mbabane and Manzini have implemented the new framework. Extending reliable address data into rural areas is seen as necessary for banks and digital providers to reach those communities. The fintech strategy's own text acknowledges that its success depends entirely on the collective will and concerted action of all stakeholders. The main challenge, then, is to move from institutional strategies to everyday use of digital services, a task that touches on the digital divide, internet access and the telecommunications sector alike."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Foreign relations and regional integration",
      "text": "Eswatini's external relations are shaped by its dependence on South Africa, its membership in overlapping regional trade arrangements, and a diplomatic recognition of Taiwan that sets it apart from nearly every other African state.\n\nRegional integration\n\nEswatini belongs to the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Its origins lie in the 1980 coordinating conference of nine majority-ruled southern African states, which included Swaziland, and SADC's trade protocol took effect in January 2000. Eswatini is also a member of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and it is one of seven states that belong to both COMESA and SADC. Its membership in the customs union with South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia complicates participation in wider schemes. A COMESA trade official has noted that this customs-union obligation makes full operation within the tripartite arrangement difficult.\n\nThe COMESA–EAC–SADC Tripartite Free Trade Area was signed in 2015 and entered into force on 25 July 2024, after 14 ratifications were reached. Eswatini was among the states that had deposited instruments of ratification by then. Earlier reports had listed it among the states that had not yet ratified, so the timeline of its participation depends on the source. Even after ratification, Eswatini's trade under the tripartite framework was described as still minimal.\n\nTaiwan\n\nEswatini established relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) on 16 September 1968, and it maintains an embassy in Taipei while Taiwan has an embassy in Mbabane. After Burkina Faso switched recognition to Beijing in 2018, Eswatini became Taiwan's only diplomatic partner in Africa. Taiwanese assistance has covered rural electrification, health, education and infrastructure, including the renovation of Mbabane Government Hospital and the construction of King Mswati III International Airport. In a joint declaration signed in Taipei in February 2024, the two governments reaffirmed their ties, and Eswatini restated its support for Taiwan's participation in international bodies.\n\nChina has repeatedly urged Eswatini to change its recognition, and its foreign ministry has described such a change as not being in Eswatini's interest. Analysts report that in 2020 Beijing warned that economic ties and diplomatic isolation could follow if Eswatini did not switch, and Eswatini was the only African state absent from the 2024 Forum on China–Africa Cooperation summit. Trade with China nonetheless continues: in 2022 Eswatini imported goods worth about US$109 million from China and exported about US$4.3 million. Some analysts argue that its heavy economic reliance on South Africa limits the leverage of Chinese economic measures. The Eswatini government describes the relationship as based on national interest and long friendship. Critics, and a local news outlet, have alleged that the ties are linked to financial payments and to the personal rule of the king; these allegations have not been established.\n\nUnited States\n\nEswatini's relationship with the United States since 2025 has centred on a third-country deportation arrangement. A memorandum of understanding dated 14 May 2025 provides for the United States to give US$5.1 million for border and migration management, and for Eswatini to accept up to 160 deportees who are not its nationals. The first flight, on 15 July 2025, carried five men from Vietnam, Yemen, Cuba, Jamaica and Laos. Further flights followed in October 2025, March 2026 and mid-2026, and a tracking group counted 32 people transferred on five flights through August 2026. Amnesty International says at least thirteen African states have received or agreed to receive third-country nationals under similar arrangements.\n\nThe US government has said that the people sent to Eswatini were convicted criminals whose home countries refused to take them back, and the White House described them as having committed serious crimes. Jamaica disputed the claim that it had refused its citizen, and that man was later repatriated. Eswatini's government initially issued no public statement confirming the deals, and later stated that the rights of third-country nationals would be respected under its laws and international obligations. Human rights groups have reported solitary confinement and lack of access to lawyers for some detainees, and Amnesty has reported that several transferred people had been granted protection under the Convention against Torture by the United States. A lawsuit reportedly argues that the agreement is unconstitutional because it was never submitted to parliament. A Senate minority report estimated the cost of the transfers at more than US$400,000 per person. The reports cited here come from advocacy groups, news organisations and government statements, and they do not always agree on figures or on the legal status of those transferred.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nRelations with the United Kingdom rest largely on the colonial past, when the territory was administered as a British protectorate until independence in 1968, and on Eswatini's membership of the Commonwealth of Nations. Both countries remain members of the Commonwealth, which provides a multilateral framework for contact between them."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Land, forestry and disputes over resources",
      "text": "Land in Eswatini is divided between two tenure categories. Title-deed land (TDL) carries freehold or concession title, while Swazi Nation Land (SNL) is vested in the Ngwenyama (the siSwati term for the King) in trust for the Nation under the 2005 constitution. The sources give different shares. A 2018 analysis puts SNL at 54% of the land area, while agriculture on TDL, which occupies 46 percent of the land area, is mainly commercial. A 2026 U.S. government report describes more than 60 percent of Eswatini's territory as SNL. The gap likely reflects different dates and methods, and the sources do not reconcile it.\n\nThe current pattern traces to colonial-era land law. The Concessions Partition Act of 1907 enabled land leased through concessions to be converted to individual freehold title, and the conversion of leased concession land to freehold title left some 42% of the Swazi population living on land now owned by settlers. A 1969 joint UK-Swazi mission later found that over 240,000 ha of land was owned by non-citizens.\n\nAccess to SNL is governed by customary arrangements rather than statute. Tenure over Swazi nation land is governed by Swazi customary law and not defined by legislation. Under this system land is controlled and held in trust by the King and allocated by tribal chiefs according to traditional arrangements, therefore citizens can only access land as tenants, never as owners. Women and young people face additional constraints, since access to land by women and the youth may continue to be constrained by traditional patriarchal land allocation practices, values and norms. The constitution nonetheless provides for expropriation only in limited cases, requiring a court order and \"prompt payment of fair and adequate compensation.\" Civil society reports describe a gap between these provisions and practice: the BTI 2026 report notes that many individuals and families have suffered eviction without compensation, and that farm dwellers lack tenure security.\n\nForestry expansion has a long history in the Usutu Valley. In 1948, Evelyn Baring, the high commissioner for Botswana, Lesotho and Eswatini from 1944 to 1951, commissioned a study to determine whether establishing an industrial tree plantation in the fertile lands of the Usutu Valley would be feasible. According to a historian cited by the Daily Maverick, for generations, Dlamini's family and many others had lived on the land that was later planted. Residents of one such family recall that in 1949 they were told to leave their homes and fields for the plantings, and the same account links the move to King Sobhuza II. The planting programme that followed is described as creating the largest area of man-made forest in one contiguous block in Africa.\n\nThe current dispute concerns the same region. In 2014, Montigny Investments acquired the forests surrounding the village of Mhlambanyatsi from Sappi's Usutu Forest Products Company Limited. Over the past two years, the company has sought to relocate residents to expand its forestry plantations. Amnesty International reports that police officers visited one 70-year-old resident's home on May 21, 2026, and urged her to sign Montigny \"voluntary relocation\" paperwork, which she refused. Montigny Investment denies both the visit and the allegation that pressure had been put on her. Amnesty also reports that tree planting reportedly began on land that residents previously used for grazing, bringing plantation activities closer to people's homes, and that when one resident protested the planting, authorities reportedly arrested and charged him. According to the same organisation, the signed agreements reportedly exclude some resettlement costs and livelihood losses. Amnesty's framing relies on the principle that relocation affecting a person's home must be genuinely voluntary, based on free and informed consent, or otherwise comply with strict legal safeguards. The Daily Maverick, for its part, reports that Eswatini's finance minister, Neal Rijkenberg, is part of the family that owns Montigny, a link it presents as central to the residents' difficulty in contesting the process.\n\nSeveral questions remain open. Land reform since independence has relied on market-based acquisition and compensation using funds provided by the former colonial masters as agreed to at independence, and critics argue that this left the basic tenure structure intact. Women's groups have started to press the issue: the Swaziland Rural Women's Assembly advocates for women's land rights and an end to traditional patriarchal systems. The core unresolved issue is how to balance commercial plantations, which hold most of the productive title-deed land, against the access to land and water on which subsistence households on SNL depend."
    }
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  "sources": [
    {
      "title": "Kingdom of Eswatini - Commonwealth Portal",
      "url": "https://www.commonwealthportal.org/country/kingdom-of-eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Swaziland is dropping its colonial era name—it is now the Kingdom of eSwatini",
      "url": "https://qz.com/africa/1257678/swaziland-changes-name-to-kingdom-of-eswatini-no-more-switzerland-mix-up"
    },
    {
      "title": "Why Swaziland Is Now the Kingdom of eSwatini",
      "url": "https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/swaziland-now-kingdom-eswatini-180968883/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Swaziland king changes country’s name to Kingdom of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/4/19/swaziland-king-changes-countrys-name-to-kingdom-of-eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - United States Department of State",
      "url": "https://2017-2021.state.gov/countries-areas/eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Outline of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "swaziland gets a name change call it eswatini now",
      "url": "https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/04/20/604000612/swaziland-gets-a-name-change-call-it-eswatini-now"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://countries-and-states.fandom.com/wiki/Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "All About Swaziland's Name Change (With Maps) - Political Geography Now",
      "url": "https://www.polgeonow.com/2018/07/eswatini-vs-swaziland-name-change.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Maps & Facts - World Atlas",
      "url": "https://www.worldatlas.com/maps/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Lesotho vs Eswatini: The Differences & Which is Better to Visit?",
      "url": "https://www.africanbudgetsafaris.com/blog/where-to-go-lesotho-vs-eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Geography of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Country Facts",
      "url": "https://www.un.int/eswatini/swaziland/country-facts"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - Trade Barriers",
      "url": "https://legacy.export.gov/article?id=Eswatini-Trade-Barriers"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Railways",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini_Railways"
    },
    {
      "title": "Goba railway",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goba_railway"
    },
    {
      "title": "South Africa: DP World invests $165 million to transform Maputo port - Serrari Group",
      "url": "https://serrarigroup.com/south-africa-dp-world-invests-165-million-to-transform-maputo-port/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Maputo Corridor",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maputo_Corridor"
    },
    {
      "title": "BTI 2026 Eswatini Country Report: BTI 2026",
      "url": "https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/SWZ"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mozambique Secures €144M to Boost Rail Corridor Linking Maputo to South Africa - Ecofin Agency",
      "url": "https://www.ecofinagency.com/news-infrastructures/2307-47805-mozambique-secures-144m-to-boost-rail-corridor-linking-maputo-to-south-africa"
    },
    {
      "title": "Export Preview",
      "url": "https://lca.logcluster.org/print-preview-current-section/3499"
    },
    {
      "title": "kids.britannica.com",
      "url": "https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Eswatini/277977"
    },
    {
      "title": "The Kingdom of Eswatini - Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)",
      "url": "https://www.comesa.int/the-kingdom-of-eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "About Us - Eswatini Government",
      "url": "https://www.gov.sz/index.php/component/content/article/223-about-us?Itemid=249"
    },
    {
      "title": "Weather & geography",
      "url": "https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/africa/eswatini/weather-climate-geography/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Scenery",
      "url": "https://www.thekingdomofeswatini.com/eswatini-experiences/scenery/"
    },
    {
      "title": "History of the Country",
      "url": "https://www.eswatini-embassy.eu/history-of-the-country/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini (Swaziland) physical map - Ontheworldmap.com",
      "url": "https://ontheworldmap.com/swaziland/swaziland-physical-map.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini geography, maps, climate, environment and terrain from Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.countryreports.org/country/eswatini/geography.htm"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini National Drought Plan The Kingdom of Eswatini Ministry of Agriculture",
      "url": "https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/country_profile_documents/Eswatini%20National%20Drought%20Plan.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Drought Resilience Profiles",
      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099072723174538073/pdf/P1730770362e53029080710100b0641ace2.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Integrated drought monitoring framework for Eswatini applying standardised precipitation index and normalised difference vegetation index - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7756730/"
    },
    {
      "title": "eswatini-climate-change-adaptation-plan- ...",
      "url": "https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/eswatini-climate-change-adaptation-plan-unfccc.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "eSwatini Drought Preparedness",
      "url": "https://www.gfdrr.org/en/eswatini-drought-preparedness"
    },
    {
      "title": "Climate Profiles of Countries in Southern Africa: Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.climatecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/Climate-Profiles-of-Countries-in-Southern-Africa-Eswatini.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Monitoring droughts in Eswatini: A spatiotemporal variability analysis using the Standard Precipitation Index - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6852612/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Integrating Standard Precipitation Index and Normalised Difference Vegetation Index for near-real-time drought monitoring in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6909412/"
    },
    {
      "title": "National Water Policy - Eswatini Government",
      "url": "https://www.gov.sz/images/MNRE_PICS/National-Water-policy----Final--Document-Aug-2018-1.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Maputo River",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maputo_River"
    },
    {
      "title": "Komati River",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komati_River"
    },
    {
      "title": "Hlane and Mlawula Game Reserves (6887) Eswatini, Africa",
      "url": "https://www.keybiodiversityareas.org/site/factsheet/6887"
    },
    {
      "title": "Protected areas of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mlawula Nature Reserve",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mlawula_Nature_Reserve"
    },
    {
      "title": "Wildlife",
      "url": "https://www.thekingdomofeswatini.com/eswatini-experiences/wildlife/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Safaris",
      "url": "https://www.thekingdomofeswatini.com/eswatini-experiences/wildlife/safaris/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Mkhaya Game Reserve",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mkhaya_Game_Reserve"
    },
    {
      "title": "Izele: Eswatini",
      "url": "https://izele.org/c/eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Animals of Swaziland",
      "url": "https://animalia.bio/swaziland-animals"
    },
    {
      "title": "Animals in Eswatini (Swaziland)",
      "url": "https://a-z-animals.com/animals/location/africa/eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "COUNTRY REPORTS THE STATE OF ESWATINI’S BIODIVERSITY FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE",
      "url": "https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c816a897-5bfc-48d1-a5ff-84f170e2ef8f/content"
    },
    {
      "title": "Early Vegetation Responses to Alien Plant Clearing in Communal Rangelands: A Case from Manzini, Eswatini",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies7010010"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini submits first Deforestation & Emissions Targets to the UN - Coalition for Rainforest Nations",
      "url": "https://www.rainforestcoalition.org/country-news/eswatini-submits-first-deforestation-emissions-targets-to-the-un/"
    },
    {
      "title": "i SGP Eswatini Country Programme Strategy for OP7 The Kingdom of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2024-03/FINAL%20SGP%20Eswatini%20Country%20Programme%20Strategy%20March%202022_0.pdf"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://animalia.bio/eswatini"
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    {
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      "url": "https://sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive-files/d._hugh_gillis_the_kingdom_of_swaziland_studiesbook4you.pdf"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swazi_people"
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    {
      "title": "History of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Eswatini"
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      "title": "Ndvungunye",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndvungunye"
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    {
      "title": "Mswati II",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mswati_II"
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    {
      "title": "Mswati II",
      "url": "https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mswati-II"
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    {
      "title": "Embhuleni",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embhuleni"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emafikamuva"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.geognos.com/en/place/eswatini/history"
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    {
      "title": "Queen Mother of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndlovukati"
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    {
      "title": "Queen Mother of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_Eswatini"
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    {
      "title": "Dlamini III",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dlamini_III"
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    {
      "title": "Politics of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Eswatini"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein_Vrystaat"
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    {
      "title": "THE SWAZI AND LAND PARTITION (1902-1910) by",
      "url": "https://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/3669/1/F_J_Mashasha_-_The_Swazi_and_land_partition_(1902-1910).pdf"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbandzeni"
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    {
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      "url": "https://sahistory.org.za/place/eswatini-formerly-swaziland"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.preceden.com/timeline/history-of-eswatini"
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      "title": "Bhunu",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhunu"
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    {
      "title": "ESWATINI (Swaziland) - Encyclopaedia Africana",
      "url": "https://encyclopaediaafricana.com/eswatini/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Eswatini_History"
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    {
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    {
      "title": "Swazi",
      "url": "https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/africa/swaziland-political-geography/swazi"
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    {
      "title": "The Complete History of Eswatini — Africa's Last Absolute Monarchy",
      "url": "https://exodus.africa/history/history-of-eswatini"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labotsibeni_Mdluli"
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    {
      "title": "Background :: Parliament of the Kingdom of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://parliament.gov.sz/about/background/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/swaziland1.html"
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    {
      "title": "Sobhuza II (1899-1982): Former Ngwenyama of Eswatini who led independence transition - Qiraat Africa",
      "url": "https://qiraatafrican.com/en/20310/sobhuza-ii-1899-1982-former-ngwenyama-of-eswatini-who-led-independence-transition/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.gchumanrights.org/preparedness/eswatini-a-call-for-justice-amidst-repression-in-africas-absolute-monarchy/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Eswatini"
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    {
      "title": "swaziland: - a failed feudal state",
      "url": "https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Swaziland-%20A%20Failed%20Feudal%20State%2015%20September%202013_1.pdf"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_parties_in_Eswatini"
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    {
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      "url": "https://planetrulers.com/swaziland-king/"
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    {
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Eswatini"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Assembly_of_Eswatini"
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      "url": "https://freedomhouse.org/country/eswatini/freedom-world/2022"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Swaziland"
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      "title": "1 Submission to the Universal Periodic Review of Eswatini Human Rights Watch",
      "url": "https://uprdoc.ohchr.org/uprweb/downloadfile.aspx?filename=9057&file=EnglishTranslation"
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      "url": "https://panafricascreen.com/en/blog/legislatif-eswatini"
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    {
      "title": "Prospects for Multi-Party Political Dialogue in Eswatini - Georgetown Journal of International Affairs",
      "url": "https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2022/03/24/prospects-for-multi-party-political-dialogue-in-eswatini/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://freedomhouse.org/country/eswatini/freedom-world/2024"
    },
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      "url": "https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/eswatini"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2108038.html"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2026/country-chapters/eswatini"
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    {
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      "url": "https://2021-2025.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/eswatini/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://geneva.usmission.gov/2021/11/08/u-s-statement-at-the-universal-periodic-review-of-eswatini/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Eswatini"
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      "url": "https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/geography-and-cartography/eswatini/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Eswatini"
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    {
      "title": "Eswatini 2005 Constitution - Constitute",
      "url": "https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Swaziland_2005?lang=en"
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      "title": "(PDF) Swaziland's Language Policy for Schools",
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      "url": "https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Eswatini_Languages"
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      "url": "https://commonwealthchamber.com/member-countries/kingdom-of-eswatini/"
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    {
      "title": "Umhlanga (ceremony)",
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      "url": "https://www.britannica.com/art/Umhlanga"
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      "url": "https://www.officeholidays.com/holidays/swaziland/umhlanga-reed-dance"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Eswatini"
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    {
      "title": "ATTA :: Eswatini's Umhlanga Reed Dance Dates Officially Announced for 2025",
      "url": "https://atta.travel/resource/eswatini-s-umhlanga-reed-dance-dates-officially-announced-for-2025.html"
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    {
      "title": "Eswatini witnesses the beginning of the 'Little Incwala' Festival",
      "url": "https://www.thekingdomofeswatini.com/news-blogs/eswatini-witnesses-the-beginning-of-the-little-incwala-festival/"
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    {
      "title": "Incwala",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incwala"
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    {
      "title": "Incwala, Tours & Travel Tips from Melula Travel",
      "url": "https://www.thekingdomofeswatini.com/news-blogs/incwala-tours-travel-tips-from-melula-travel/"
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    {
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      "url": "https://grownuptravel.co/eswatini-culture-and-history/"
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      "url": "https://nativetribe.info/swazi-traditional-dances-celebrating-eswatinis-heritage/"
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      "url": "https://culturesherpa.org/explore/culture/eswatini/"
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      "title": "Incwala Festival",
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    {
      "title": "IMF Staff Completes 2026 Article IV Mission to the Kingdom of Eswatini",
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.riotimesonline.com/eswatini-energy-independence-imf-growth-2026/"
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    {
      "title": "International Monetary Fund (IMF) / Press release",
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      "title": "ESWATINI Eswatini’s GDP growth is expected to edge lower to 3.9",
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      "title": "IMF Concludes 2026 Article IV Mission in Eswatini",
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      "url": "https://www.worldbank.org/ext/en/country/eswatini"
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      "url": "https://www.times.co.sz/business/readmore.php?bhsadjgfoh=Eswatini+inflation+eases+further+to+1.6%25%2C+risks+linger&yiphi=3581&bvhdgsj=Business+and+Economy"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.times.co.sz/business/readmore.php?bhsadjgfoh=Inflation+pressures+return+as+prices+rise&yiphi=3886&bvhdgsj=Business+and+Economy"
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      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099062525124012924/pdf/P507872-a15768e4-a0d1-4b49-9da3-7525ede05d57.pdf"
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    {
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      "title": "European market growth lifts sugar exports to E1.1bn :: Business & Economy News",
      "url": "https://www.times.co.sz/business/readmore.php?bhsadjgfoh=European+market+growth+lifts+sugar+exports+to+E1.1bn&yiphi=3907&bvhdgsj=Business+and+Economy"
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    {
      "title": "inequality in southern africa",
      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099125203072213876/pdf/P164927027e08100009fd60a215c442dcf5.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - Context and Land Governance",
      "url": "https://landportal.org/book/narratives/2021/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Kingdom of Eswatini: 2023 Article IV Consultation-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Kingdom of Eswatini in: IMF Staff Country Reports Volume 2023 Issue 160 (2023)",
      "url": "https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/002/2023/160/article-A001-en.xml"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini’s King Mswati III at 40 years in power: Gold, grandeur and a firmer grip",
      "url": "https://www.theafricareport.com/416897/eswatinis-king-mswati-iii-at-40-years-in-power-gold-grandeur-and-a-firmer-grip/"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://thisisafrica.me/politics-and-society/king-mswati-iii-lifestyles-rich-royal/"
    },
    {
      "title": "The Royal Eswatini Sugar Corporation",
      "url": "https://sz.linkedin.com/company/royal-eswatini-sugar-corporation"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://www.billionaires.africa/2023/08/22/10-assets-controlled-by-king-mswati-iii-of-eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Beverages Ltd",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini_Beverages_Ltd"
    },
    {
      "title": "Royal Riches",
      "url": "https://inhlase.com/royal-riches-the-business-of-being-king/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Beverages",
      "url": "https://sz.linkedin.com/company/eswatini-beverages"
    },
    {
      "title": "ESWATINI - PHIA Project",
      "url": "https://phia.icap.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/53059_14_SHIMS3_Summary-sheet-Web.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "At a glance: HIV in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.beintheknow.org/understanding-hiv-epidemic/data/glance-hiv-eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "HIV & AIDS by Country in 2026: The Global Map",
      "url": "https://www.mappr.co/hiv-aids-by-country/"
    },
    {
      "title": "National Survey in Eswatini Demonstrates Historic Reduction in New Infections - ICAP at Columbia University",
      "url": "https://icap.columbia.edu/news-events/national-survey-in-eswatini-demonstrates-historic-reduction-in-new-infections/"
    },
    {
      "title": "AIDS in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "HIV Rates by Country 2026",
      "url": "https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/hiv-rates-by-country"
    },
    {
      "title": "HIV and TB Overview: Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.cdc.gov/global-hiv-tb/php/where-we-work/eswatini.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "cquin.icap.columbia.edu",
      "url": "https://cquin.icap.columbia.edu/the-network/eswatini"
    },
    {
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      "url": "https://doaj.org/article/2834ec6deb4147ebaccefa61b58d3439"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - Health Indicators - Humanitarian Data Exchange",
      "url": "https://data.humdata.org/dataset/who-data-for-swz"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini (SWZ) - Demographics, Health & Infant Mortality - UNICEF DATA",
      "url": "https://data.unicef.org/country/swz/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - Health Country Profile",
      "url": "https://ourworldindata.org/profile/health/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Demographics 2026 (Population, Age, Sex, Trends) - Worldometer",
      "url": "https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/swaziland-demographics/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini: Life Expectancy 1950-2026 & Calculator by age",
      "url": "https://georank.org/life-expectancy/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Healthy life expectancy, 1949-2025 - knoema.com",
      "url": "https://opendataforafrica.org/atlas/Eswatini/topics/Health/Health-Status/Healthy-life-expectancy"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini's Life Expectancy",
      "url": "https://www.worldeconomics.com/Demographics/Life-Expectancy/Eswatini.aspx"
    },
    {
      "title": "ESWATINI Health at a glance",
      "url": "https://srhdpeuwpubsa.blob.core.windows.net/whdh/DATADOT/COUNTRY/PDF/748_Eswatini.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Epidemiology and Control of diabetes - tuberculosis comorbidity in Eswatini: protocol for the prospective study of tuberculosis patients on predictive factors, treatment outcomes and patient management practices - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9213760/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Diabetes—Tuberculosis Care in Eswatini: A Qualitative Study of Opportunities and Recommendations for Effective Services Integration - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10097913/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Health in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_in_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "(PDF) Diabetes—Tuberculosis Care in Eswatini: A Qualitative Study of Opportunities and Recommendations for Effective Services Integration",
      "url": "https://www.academia.edu/114648364/Diabetes_Tuberculosis_Care_in_Eswatini_A_Qualitative_Study_of_Opportunities_and_Recommendations_for_Effective_Services_Integration"
    },
    {
      "title": "Epidemiology and Control of diabetes - tuberculosis comorbidity in Eswatini: protocol for the prospective study of tuberculosis patients on predictive factors, treatment outcomes and patient management practices - PubMed",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35728897/"
    },
    {
      "title": "New, More Convenient Tuberculosis Services Are Saving Women’s Lives in Eswatini - ICAP at Columbia University",
      "url": "https://icap.columbia.edu/new-more-convenient-tuberculosis-services-are-saving-womens-lives-in-eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "eswatini-national-integrated-tuberculosis-guidelines-2025- ...",
      "url": "https://www.prescribingcompanion.com/media/1860/eswatini-national-integrated-tuberculosis-guidelines-2025-final.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "From Crisis to Comeback: Turning the Tide on TB in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.cdc.gov/global-hiv-tb/php/success-stories/eswatinibeforeandafter.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "TB/HIV - Eswatini National AIDS Programme",
      "url": "http://swaziaidsprogram.org/tbhiv/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Document of the World Bank Report No: AUS0002298 . Eswatini",
      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/329331623650791871/pdf/Eswatini-Education-Sector-Analysis.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini: Education Country Brief",
      "url": "https://www.iicba.unesco.org/en/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Education System in Eswatini - Universities & Training 2026 - Africarrieres",
      "url": "https://africarrieres.com/eswatini/en/guide/decouvrir/education-system"
    },
    {
      "title": "Inclusive education in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_education_in_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Education in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "University of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Faculty of Education",
      "url": "https://www.uneswa.ac.sz/academics/faculties_and_institutes/education/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Broadcasting and Information Service",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini_Broadcasting_and_Information_Service"
    },
    {
      "title": "Television in Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.nokstvafrica.com/country-guides/eswatini/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Independent News Eswatini - Overview, News & Similar companies",
      "url": "https://www.zoominfo.com/c/independent-news-eswatini/556656210"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://rsf.org/en/country/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Times takeover rings death knell for independent media",
      "url": "https://inhlase.com/times-takeover-rings-death-knell-for-independent-media/"
    },
    {
      "title": "ERS, EPTC BRING GOVERNMENT SERVICES CLOSER TO EMASWATI THROUGH 34 POST OFFICES - Eswatini Positive News",
      "url": "https://eswatinipositivenews.online/ers-eptc-bring-government-services-closer-to-emaswati-through-34-post-offices/"
    },
    {
      "title": "GOVT TO USE POST OFFICES AS COMMUNITY DIGITAL CENTRES",
      "url": "https://eswatinipositivenews.online/govt-to-use-post-offices-as-community-digital-centres-ps-prince-mashishimba/"
    },
    {
      "title": "www.bis.org",
      "url": "https://www.bis.org/review/r250603b.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "African Nation of Eswatini and its Fintech Ecosystem in 2026",
      "url": "https://thefintechtimes.com/african-nation-of-eswatini-and-its-fintech-ecosystem-in-2026/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://dig.watch/countries/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "National Address System Set to Unlock Eswatini’s Digital Economy - FinGuard Magazine",
      "url": "https://www.finguardmagazine.com/business/national-address-system-set-to-unlock-eswatinis-digital-economy/"
    },
    {
      "title": "NATIONAL FINTECH STRATEGY Kingdom of Eswatini 2025-2030",
      "url": "https://www.afi-global.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/National-Fintech-Strategy-Digital.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.aacrao.org/edge/country/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini National Payment System Vision 2025 NPS Vision and Strategy Document",
      "url": "https://www.centralbank.org.sz/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Eswatini-National-Payment-System-Vision-2025.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Foreign relations of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini%E2%80%93Taiwan relations",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations"
    },
    {
      "title": "Taiwan’s Diplomatic Setback: How Much Longer Will Eswatini Maintain Diplomatic Ties with Taiwan? - Australian Institute of International Affairs",
      "url": "https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/taiwans-diplomatic-setback-how-much-longer-will-eswatini-maintain-diplomatic-ties-with-taiwan/"
    },
    {
      "title": "China urges Eswatini against developing official diplomatic relations with Taiwan",
      "url": "https://www.africanews.com/2024/09/05/china-urges-eswatini-against-developing-official-diplomatic-relations-with-taiwan/"
    },
    {
      "title": "China-Africa Summit Shines a Spotlight on Eswatini, Taiwan’s Lone Partner in Africa",
      "url": "https://thediplomat.com/2024/09/china-africa-summit-shines-a-spotlight-on-eswatini-taiwans-lone-partner-in-africa/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Taiwan, Eswatini sign joint declaration reaffirming diplomatic ties",
      "url": "https://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/taiwan/2024/taiwan-240201-cna01.htm"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini Not Expecting 'Friction' With China Over Taiwan President Visit",
      "url": "https://www.voanews.com/a/eswatini-not-expecting-friction-with-china-over-taiwan-president-visit/7253779.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "ESWATINI TAIWAN RELATIONS",
      "url": "https://www.gov.sz/index.php/latest-news/2291-eswatini-taiwan-relations"
    },
    {
      "title": "“To Scare People”: US Expulsions of Third-Country Nationals to Countries in Africa",
      "url": "https://www.hrw.org/report/2026/10/08/to-scare-people/us-expulsions-of-third-country-nationals-to-countries-in-africa"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini: Fourth US third-country removal operation raises fresh human rights concerns - Amnesty International",
      "url": "https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2026/07/eswatini-fourth-us-third-country-removal-operation-raises-fresh-human-rights-concerns/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini receives 11 people deported from the U.S. as part of migration crackdown",
      "url": "https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/eswatini-receives-11-people-deported-us-part-migration-crackdown-rcna353745"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini — Third Country Deportation Watch",
      "url": "https://www.thirdcountrydeportationwatch.org/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "US sends deportees to Eswatini in third-country deportation: DHS",
      "url": "https://www.yahoo.com/news/us-sends-deportees-eswatini-third-160322442.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "US sends another ‘third-country’ deportation flight to Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/10/6/us-sends-another-third-country-deportation-flight-to-eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "10 more migrants sent to Eswatini as part of U.S.' third-country deportation agreement",
      "url": "https://www.axios.com/2025/10/06/us-deportation-eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "U.S. sends 5 men to Eswatini amid Trump’s third-country deportations - The Washington Post",
      "url": "https://www.washingtonpost.com/immigration/2025/07/16/eswatini-third-country-deportations-trump/"
    },
    {
      "title": "DHS announces 'third country deportation flight' landed in Southern Africa's Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.foxnews.com/us/dhs-announces-third-country-deportation-flight-landed-southern-africas-eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - Trade Agreements",
      "url": "https://legacy.export.gov/article?id=Eswatini-Trade-Agreements"
    },
    {
      "title": "An Introduction to the Law of the Southern African Development Community - Globalex",
      "url": "https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/southern_african_development_community1.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "Five countries flagged for holding up Comesa-EAC-SADC mega trade bloc - The EastAfrican",
      "url": "https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business-tech/five-countries-flagged-for-holding-up-comesa-eac-sadc-trade-bloc-5235540"
    },
    {
      "title": "COMESA-EAC-SADC TRIPARTITE FREE TRADE AREA TO COME INTO FORCE ON 25TH JULY, 2024",
      "url": "https://www.sadc.int/latest-news/comesa-eac-sadc-tripartite-free-trade-area-come-force-25th-july-2024"
    },
    {
      "title": "COMESA-EAC-SADC Tripartite Free Trade Area Comes into Force - Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)",
      "url": "https://www.comesa.int/comesa-eac-sadc-tripartite-free-trade-area-to-come-into-force-on-25th-july-2024/"
    },
    {
      "title": "COMESA-EAC-SADC Tripartite FTA - tralac trade law centre",
      "url": "https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/comesa-eac-sadc-tripartite-fta.html"
    },
    {
      "title": "1",
      "url": "https://comesabusinesscouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/COMESA-South-Africa-Trade-Relations.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini - Context and Land Governance",
      "url": "https://d9.landportal.org/book/narratives/2021/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "eSwatini Land Reform and Rural Transformation Overview",
      "url": "https://politicaleconomy.org.za/2018/05/eswatini-land-reform-and-rural-transformation-overview/"
    },
    {
      "title": "2026 Investment Climate Statements: Eswatini",
      "url": "https://www.state.gov/reports/2026-investment-climate-statements/eswatini"
    },
    {
      "title": "Deprivation of Land Tenure to Daughters of Mother Earth: The Case of Eswatini",
      "url": "https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2707-29912023000100007"
    },
    {
      "title": "Pines over people in timber giant’s bid to push Eswatini community off ancestral land",
      "url": "https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2026-03-01-pines-over-people-in-timber-giants-bid-tto-push-eswatini-community-off-ancestral/?dm_source=blocks-category&dm_medium=card-link&dm_campaign=inform"
    },
    {
      "title": "First UA: 59/26 Index: AFR 55/1081/2026 Eswatini of July 01, 2026 ESWATINI",
      "url": "https://amnesty.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/UA-59_26_Eswatini.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "ESWATINI: 70-YEAR-OLD PRESSURED INTO FORCED EVICTION (59.26)",
      "url": "https://www.amnestyusa.org/urgent-actions/eswatini-70-year-old-pressured-into-forced-eviction/"
    },
    {
      "title": "Eswatini: Stop pressuring 70-year-old woman into forced eviction",
      "url": "https://amnesty.ca/urgent-actions/eswatini-stop-pressuring-70-year-old-woman-into-forced-eviction/"
    },
    {
      "title": "a comparison of communal and private land tenure ...",
      "url": "https://www.fao.org/4/x1372t/x1372t08.htm"
    }
  ],
  "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
}