{
  "id": "dhaka",
  "title": "Dhaka",
  "lang": "en",
  "source_lang": "en",
  "summary": "Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and one of the world's largest and most densely populated urban areas, with a history from Mughal capital to megacity.",
  "category": "geography",
  "subcategory": "",
  "type": "place",
  "aliases": [
    "Dacca",
    "Dhaka City"
  ],
  "generated_at": "2026-10-09",
  "model": "pro/claude-haiku-5-5",
  "url": "https://aiwiki.page/en/dhaka/",
  "translations": {
    "zh-Hans": {
      "url": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/dhaka/",
      "json": "https://aiwiki.page/zh/dhaka.json"
    }
  },
  "sections": [
    {
      "heading": "",
      "text": "Dhaka is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, a megacity on the lower Ganges–Brahmaputra delta in eastern South Asia. Its metropolitan area is among the largest in the world, and it is widely regarded as one of the most densely populated built-up urban areas on Earth. Dhaka serves as the country's political, administrative, financial, educational and cultural centre, and its growth has been driven by rapid urbanization, internal migration and the expansion of its export-oriented manufacturing sector. Its location on the rivers and floodplains of the delta also makes it a focal point for questions about climate change, flooding and environmental governance.\n\nThe city's history spans several centuries of political change. It rose to prominence as a provincial capital under the Mughal Empire in the early seventeenth century, was reshaped during colonial rule, served as the provincial capital of East Pakistan, and became the capital of independent Bangladesh after the 1971 war of liberation. Dhaka's cultural life, which includes Bengali language and literature, religious diversity, festivals and UNESCO-recognized heritage, reflects this layered past. Its built environment and social life are shaped by the tension between a dense, informal urban fabric and planned development.\n\nThis entry first describes Dhaka's geography and climate, then traces its history from early settlement through the Mughal, colonial, Pakistani and independence periods. It next examines governance, demography, the economy, transport, housing, environmental and public-health conditions, and culture and education. It closes with the city's planning challenges and unresolved questions about its future."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Name and etymology",
      "text": "The name is most often linked to the Dhakeshwari temple, a Hindu shrine in Old Dhaka whose name means \"Goddess of Dhaka\". Local tradition credits the Sena king Ballal Sen, dated to the twelfth century, with founding the temple and naming the town after the goddess. The historical basis for that account is weak. The surviving building is two hundred years old, and it was probably a renovation of an older shrine rather than a new foundation. Some scholars also reverse the direction of the link: Dhakeshwari may also mean Goddess of Dhaka; so the temple might have been named after the region.\n\nOther explanations circulate, and none is firmly established. There is no definitive origin story of the name, but there are various theories. One widely repeated account links the name to the Dhak tree (Butea), which grew abundantly in the area. In this version, a temple that had been overgrown was hidden under the plant and became known as the temple of the goddess of the Dhak. Another proposal ties the name to a Bengali word meaning \"concealed\" or \"covered\", describing a low-lying site hidden by vegetation before it was cleared. These accounts are mostly local or popular, and historians treat them as unverified.\n\nThe English form \"Dacca\" was standard in colonial-era documents, and the spelling appears in many historical sources. The earliest written mention cited here is a 1550 map in João de Barros's Décadas da Ásia, which reads \"Daca\". The spelling \"Dacca\" is in all likelihood, a contribution of the Portuguese. Under the British, the name appeared in administrative and institutional titles, such as the Nawab of Dacca, the head of a large Muslim zamindari based in the city. Even as the spelling changed later, the old form survived in some international contexts.\n\nThe official English spelling changed to \"Dhaka\" in 1982. The change was not officially, but in people's mind at first, and it was somehow conformed to how it is spelt in Bangla. Residents are called Dhakaiya or Dhakaites, and the name is closely tied to the city's identity as a centre of Bengali culture. Its associations also reach into the region's Hindu heritage and its colonial past under the British."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Geography and setting",
      "text": "Dhaka sits in central Bangladesh on the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta, and its surroundings are defined by a ring of rivers. The Buriganga, Turag, Dhaleshwari and Shitalakshya are the usual boundary rivers, while the Balu flows through the eastern and northern fringes.Lying on the Ganges Delta, it is bounded by the Buriganga, Turag, Dhaleshwari and Shitalakshya rivers. The Buriganga is the most central of these. Its source is the Dhaleshwari near Kalatia, and sources give its length as 27 to 29 km.Source: Dhaleshwari River, location near Kalatia; length 27 km (17 mi) Its water is largely fed by the Turag. In fact, the main flow of the Buriganga comes from the Turag. The Turag is the upper tributary of the Buriganga. It rises from the Bangshi, reaches the Buriganga at Mirpur in Dhaka District, and is navigable by boat all year round.\n\nThe Balu and Shitalakshya complete the picture on the east. The Balu passes through the wetlands of Beel Belai and Dhaka before its confluence with the Shitalakshya at Demra. The Shitalakshya is much longer and wider: the river is about 110 kilometers long and the width is around 300 meters. It runs near Narayanganj, just across the river from the city's eastern edge. The rivers are not fixed features. The Turag suffers from infilling along its banks, which restricts its flow. Some of the Buriganga's course is more stable. Its reach past Dhaka is held in place by resistant clays marking the southern edge of the Madhupur tract.\n\nThe city's low elevation and its position on the floodplain shape how water moves through it. Published elevation figures vary by the area they describe. One reference gives 32 m (105 ft) for the city, while another gives 7 m (23 ft) for the wider Greater Dhaka region. Under either figure the land is flat and close to river level. Drainage therefore depends on channels that are subject to tides and seasonal floods. The Buriganga is a tide-influenced river passing through the west and south of Dhaka City. Because the land drains slowly toward these channels, flood waters and rising river levels can back up into the built-up area. Changes to the rivers and their banks therefore matter for the city's drainage. Infilling of the Turag is one example, and the Balu's passage through wetlands is another.\n\nThe Dhaka metropolitan area is considerably larger than the city corporations, and its boundaries have been defined in different ways. The city corporation area itself is small. Dhaka North and South City Corporations together cover an area of 301 km², according to a 2024 projection. By contrast, the metropolitan region administered by the Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha (RAJUK) has a total area of 1,528 square kilometres. That region also includes four city corporations: Dhaka North City Corporation, Dhaka South City Corporation, Gazipur City Corporation and Narayanganj City Corporation. Earlier statistical definitions were narrower. The Dhaka Statistical Metropolitan Area was 1,353 square kilometers, of which Dhaka City Corporation occupied 276 square kilometers at the 2001 census. Figures for the metropolitan area also differ across references, with one listing 2,569.55 km² and another listing 867.49 km².\n\nThese definitions affect how population is counted. The 2022 census recorded 5,990,723 residents under the North City Corporation's jurisdiction, and the South City Corporation recorded 4,305,063 population. Those two totals cover only the urban core, not the wider region. Boundaries are also not stable. Official reports note that administrative boundaries of Thana are also complicated and not coherent with the boundaries of local administrative units. They add that administrative limits of Dhaka City Corporation have expanded every year due to new housing development and urban expansion. When a source gives a population or density for \"Dhaka\", it is therefore necessary to check whether it refers to the city corporations, RAJUK's jurisdiction or the statistical metropolitan area."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Climate and environmental hazards",
      "text": "Dhaka has a tropical monsoon climate, classified as tropical wet and dry (Köppen Aw). The city has a distinct monsoonal season, with an annual average temperature of 25 °C (77 °F) and monthly means varying between 18 °C (64 °F) in January and 29 °C (84 °F) in August. Humidity is high in every month but peaks during the wet season, when the air often feels heavy even on days with moderate temperatures. The southwest monsoon arrives in June and lasts into September. Estimates of its share of annual rainfall vary: one summary places it at nearly 80% of the annual average rainfall of 1,854 millimeters, while another puts it nearer 70 percent, so the exact figure depends on the dataset and period used.\n\nRainfall and temperature trends are not uniform, which complicates projections. A study of Dhaka station data from 1976 to 2015 found that monsoon rainfall has increased, whereas the annual rainfall has decreased. A national study covering 1980 to 2020 found that most stations showed declining monthly rainfall, which points to a mixed picture rather than a single direction. Temperature has risen more consistently. An average temperature rise of 1.03 °C in Dhaka was observed since 1900. The temperature rise was strongest in the monsoon season (June-August). Local observers describe longer summers with heatwaves, weaker monsoons and shorter winters. The sharpest concern concerns extremes rather than averages: one modelling exercise suggested that daily rainfall of 200 mm or more could occur roughly once every twelve years in the period from 2010 to 2066.\n\nWaterlogging is the most visible hazard. Heavy rain can paralyse the city within hours. In July 2024, Dhaka recorded 130 millimetres of rain in six hours, and roads across the city went under water. Urban planners generally agree that a changing climate intensifies these episodes, but they locate the chronic problem in local causes. Dhaka's chronic flooding is primarily the result of decades of canal encroachment, shrinking wetlands, inadequate drainage infrastructure, and poor coordination among government agencies. Historically, the city drained through a network of canals, natural drains and wetlands that carried stormwater into the Buriganga, Turag, Balu and Shitalakshya rivers. As urban surfaces were paved and water bodies were filled, that storage and conveyance capacity shrank. Replacing natural permeable surfaces with concrete and asphalt reduces the land's ability to absorb rainwater and increases surface runoff, overwhelming the drainage systems. Drains are also frequently blocked by solid waste. A 2024 study by the River and Delta Research Centre estimated that restoring just 15 encroached canals could reduce roughly 80% of the capital's recurring waterlogging. Despite large drainage budgets, the problem has persisted. The two Dhaka city corporations reportedly invested more than Tk 262 crore over four years up to 2024 to build 334.19 kilometres of drains, box culverts and related infrastructure, yet large areas still flooded.\n\nThe burden of waterlogging falls unevenly. A 2023 GIS and remote-sensing study found that almost 35 percent of Dhaka falls within high or very high waterlogging-vulnerability zones, with slum households disproportionately concentrated there. In outlying areas such as Matuail, drainage gaps mean that without a functional drainage network, Matuail has prolonged waterlogging – sometimes even without rainfall. Groundwater over-extraction and waste management problems add further stress to the same low-lying neighbourhoods.\n\nFlooding, riverbank erosion and heat stress are expected to intensify together as the climate changes. Erosion along the rivers that bound the region is likely to continue, and rural households displaced by floods and erosion have often moved toward the capital, which feeds into the informal settlement pressures discussed elsewhere. Heat compounds the damage: after floodwaters recede, residents in exposed areas face hot, humid conditions that add to the health and productivity burden of the wet season."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Early settlement and pre-Mughal history",
      "text": "The early history of the Dhaka site is poorly documented. Some accounts date the first settlements in the modern city's territory to the seventh century, when the area is said to have belonged to Buddhist or Hindu kingdoms such as Kamarupa and the Sena dynasty. Other sources are more cautious: the Banglapedia entry states that Dhaka's existence in the pre-Muslim period cannot be ascertained with certainty, and that the town grew into an urban centre under the Sultanates. The region itself is part of the Ganges delta, a landscape of rivers, marshes and raised ground, and this setting shaped its early importance more than any single fortified city did.\n\nFor several centuries the regional focus lay about 30 kilometres away at Sonargaon, southeast of present-day Dhaka. Its ancient name, Suvarnagrama, is usually rendered as \"city of gold\", and it was the seat of Hindu and Buddhist rulers before the thirteenth century. Around 1203 a Muslim army under Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded the region, and in the late thirteenth century Sonargaon came under the authority of the Delhi Sultanate. Its position on the rivers of eastern Bengal made it a natural base for a regional governor. In 1338, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah established independent authority in eastern Bengal with Sonargaon as his capital, and the town later hosted a royal court and a mint.\n\nDhaka's early role was that of a secondary town within this network. Its localities bear Hindu names, such as Shankharibazar and Tantibazar, which point to a concentration of craftsmen and traders who served the wider region. Sonargaon itself was celebrated for its cotton fabrics, and its waterways connected weaving communities, farms and markets. Foreign visitors described it as a commercial hub: the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta recorded its links with China, Java and the Maldives, and the Chinese envoy Ma Huan, who visited the court around 1406, described a walled city with broad streets and busy bazaars. Dhaka's share in this economy rested on the same river trade and on the agricultural surplus of the surrounding delta, which made the wider region part of long-distance commercial routes such as the Silk Road system of exchange. Sonargaon's dominance declined after the Mughal conquest of Bengal, and the balance of trade and administration shifted towards Dhaka in the early seventeenth century."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Mughal capital and the muslin economy",
      "text": "Dhaka's rise to regional prominence came in the early seventeenth century, when the Mughal Empire tightened its hold on Bengal. Islam Khan Chishti, a Mughal general and Subahdar of Bengal from 1608 till his death in 1613, moved the provincial seat from Rajmahal to Dhaka. Sources differ on the date: one account places the declaration of Dhaka as capital in 1608, while another dates the transfer to 1610. He renamed the city Jahangirnagar after the emperor, but the older name Dhaka remained more popular with ordinary people, and foreign merchants and officials kept using it.\n\nThe choice of site reflected strategic concerns. The city lay in a low, river-cut region that had long sheltered opponents of Mughal authority, and Islam Khan had the task of subduing rebellious rajas, landholders and Afghan chiefs. Dhaka's position on the Buriganga and its parent river, the Dhaleswari, linked it to the major rivers and, through them, to most districts of Bengal. Its status was not permanent. In 1651 the governor Shah Shuja moved the capital of Bengal back to Rajmahal, after which Dhaka continued as a sub-capital of a wealthy and resourceful province.\n\nMughal patronage produced a built environment of palaces, mosques, gardens and forts. The growth of mosques was especially rapid after 1608, and the city later earned the title \"City of Mosques\". The best-known surviving complex is Lalbagh Fort, begun in 1678 by Prince Muhammad Azam Shah, the son of Aurangzeb, who was then the Subahdar. Its construction was left incomplete after the death of Iran Dukht (Pari Bibi) in 1684, and the fort's grounds still include her tomb, a mosque and the governor's residence. Contemporary accounts described a city of merchants from across Eurasia, with a river port that served as a major trading hub for both riverine and maritime commerce.\n\nThe city's commercial reputation rested on muslin, a fine cotton textile. Muslin had been made in Bengal since antiquity, but Dhaka's product became famous after the Mughal capital was established. The Mughal emperors and nobility patronised the Dhaka muslin industry, and large quantities of the finest cloth were procured for the imperial court, provincial governors and senior officers. The fabric was spun from phuti cotton, which grew in particular localities on the banks of the Brahmaputra and its branches. Its extreme lightness earned it the description \"woven air\", and it reached buyers in Europe as well as across India. European trading companies had few local goods to sell in Bengal, so they imported bullion to pay for the textiles. In 1747, the value of Dhaka's cotton exports, mostly muslin, was estimated at rupees twenty-eight lakh and a half. The decline of this trade after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and the collapse of the Mughal patronage that had sustained it, belong to the colonial period discussed below."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Colonial era and the Bengal partition",
      "text": "As Mughal authority weakened, Dhaka was run for decades by regional officials. The chief local post was the Naib Nazim, a deputy governor whose office was the chief political officer in the city between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries, and it ranked as the second-highest office in the political hierarchy of the Subah of Bengal. Accounts differ on when the provincial capital left Dhaka. One dates the move to Murshidabad to 1704, while another gives 1717. Both mark the start of the city's relative decline.\n\nPolitical control then passed to the British through the Indian subcontinent's Company rule. The city passed to the control of the British East India Company in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey and eventually to the Crown in 1765 at the Battle of Buxar. Under the Company, the Naib Nazim was retained in a nominal role until the office was abolished in 1843.\n\nThe most consequential economic change of this period was the collapse of the muslin trade, which had sustained the city's reputation as a trading centre. Banglapedia's estimates put the annual value of muslin produced in Dhaka and its surroundings at about 2.85 million rupees in the 1740s, falling to about 2.6 million by 1800, as the loss of Indian patrons and the import of cheap factory-made English textiles cut demand. The industry was then hit by policy as well. In the mid-19th century the British effectively shut down Dhaka's muslin industry by imposing a large duty on the cloth's import and also by introducing British-milled machine-made thread in Dhaka. The cheaper British thread soon put Dhaka's weavers out of business. The Dhaka muslin trade's decline was tied to the wider competition of the industrial age.\n\nOther commodities partly replaced muslin. Commerce in indigo in the 1820s and 1830s came to the city's rescue for a time, and the jute trade in the 1850s did the same. By the 1880s the city became an important centre of jute trade and jute manufactures. The city's share of the regional population also shifted, as the city's population shrank dramatically during this period as the prominence of Kolkata rose. Colonial authorities nonetheless invested in urban services. A modern civic water supply system was introduced in 1874 and an electricity supply was launched in 1878. A military base was also set up nearby, as the Dhaka Cantonment was established near the city, serving as a base for British Indian military personnel.\n\nThe 1905 partition of Bengal briefly restored Dhaka's administrative prominence. Viceroy Lord Curzon brought the Partition of Bengal into effect on 16 October 1905, dividing Bengal Presidency and creating the new Muslim-majority province of Eastern Bengal and Assam with its capital at Dacca. The arrangement was contested from the start. Hindus were outraged at this \"divide and rule\" policy, even though Curzon stressed it would produce administrative efficiency. The protests grew into the Swadeshi movement. The new province lasted only until the British reversed course. On 12 December 1911, at the Delhi Durbar, King George V announced the annulment of the partition: Bengal was reunited on linguistic lines, Bihar and Orissa were carved into a separate province, Assam reverted to a Chief Commissionership, and the imperial capital was simultaneously transferred from Calcutta to Delhi. Dhaka thus lost its provincial capital role, although a university was later founded as partial compensation, as the University was established as compensation for the annulment of the 1905 Partition of Bengal."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Partition, East Pakistan and the language movement",
      "text": "The partition of British India in 1947 turned Dhaka from a district town into a provincial capital almost overnight. On 27 June 1947, an emergency meeting of the Bengal Provincial Muslim League decided to establish the headquarters of the proposed Pakistani province in Dhaka. The decolonization settlement divided the Bengal Presidency along the Radcliffe Line in August 1947. Hindu-majority West Bengal went to India, while the Muslim-majority eastern districts became East Bengal, a province of the Dominion of Pakistan. Dhaka's municipal machinery was not designed for this role. A municipality of about six square miles lacked the resources to host a full provincial government, and the arrival of officials, police and refugees strained housing and services.\n\nThe city's demographic composition changed quickly. Communal violence in 1947 killed thousands, and a large part of Dhaka's Hindu population, which had been prominent among its lawyers, teachers and doctors, left for India. They were replaced by Muslim migrants from West Bengal, Assam and Bihar. The population rose from 335,925 in 1951 to 556,712 in 1961, an increase of about 66 percent in a decade. The province itself was renamed East Pakistan in 1956, and Dhaka became its administrative, legislative and political centre.\n\nThe central question that defined the period was language. Students at the University of Dhaka had already gathered on 8 December 1947 to demand that Bengali be made an official language. On 27 January 1952, Prime Minister Khawaja Nazimuddin announced that Urdu would be the sole state language of Pakistan, although Bengali was the mother tongue of most of the country's eastern population. Protest followed, and the provincial government under Chief Minister Nurul Amin banned public meetings and processions in Dhaka under Section 144 of the penal code. Organisers decided to defy the order.\n\nOn 21 February 1952, students and activists gathered on the university campus and in the surrounding streets, and police opened fire on the demonstrators. Several students were killed, and the deaths provoked widespread unrest across the city and the province. A memorial, the Shaheed Minar, was built near the university within a day, and police later destroyed it. The Bengali Language Movement thus became a foundational event for Bengali national identity. It linked linguistic rights to political self-government and to a sense of distinctiveness from West Pakistan. Central authorities eventually granted Bengali official status alongside Urdu in 1956, and UNESCO later proclaimed 21 February International Mother Language Day, which promotes multilingualism worldwide.\n\nDhaka was also the place where the wider grievances of the eastern wing took organised political form during the 1950s and 1960s. Disparities in administration, representation and economic investment between East and West Pakistan were a recurring source of resentment, and the city's students, professionals and party activists became central to campaigns for provincial autonomy and electoral reform. Strikes, rallies and clashes with the authorities became frequent, and the capital's political life increasingly reflected the demands that would later lead to the independence of Bangladesh in 1971."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Independence and the capital of Bangladesh",
      "text": "Dhaka was the principal arena of the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. On 7 March, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman addressed a mass gathering at the Racecourse Ground, now Suhrawardy Udyan, and called for self-determination. When the Pakistan Army launched Operation Searchlight on the night of 25 March, the city absorbed the first and most violent blows of the crackdown. In one episode, 17 professors and around 200 students were murdered on the Dhaka University campus. The war ended in the city itself: Pakistan's army surrendered in Dhaka on December 16, 1971, marking the independence of Bangladesh. The surrender ceremony was held at the Ramna Race Course, and the provisional government, which had been formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and had operated from exile in Calcutta, arrived in Dhaka from exile on 22 December.\n\nDhaka's status as capital followed directly. Following independence, Dhaka was declared the capital of Bangladesh. Although the city had already served as the capital of East Pakistan, the new state gave it a much wider role. As the capital of a free sovereign state, Dhaka assumed the status of being its most important centre of political power, administrative functions and economic, social, educational and cultural activities. Because the country has not pursued a strong policy of devolving authority, the city has remained the place where most decisions are taken and where the headquarters of nearly every government department are located. Parliament, the central ministries and the higher courts have made the city the main site for negotiation, lobbying and contestation over national affairs, which in turn has made it the natural stage for public protest and for confrontation with the state. The concentration of institutions is therefore both a source of the city's authority and a reason why national political conflicts so often play out on its streets. For the structure of the state itself, see government and sovereignty.\n\nThe new capital status accelerated a demographic transformation. Since Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan in 1971, Dhaka's population has shot up from 1.5 million to 22 million. Growth came mainly from migration rather than natural increase. Every year, an estimated 300,000 to 400,000 rural migrants joined the city, according to a World Bank figure cited in a city profile, and they came for administrative, industrial and service jobs. The city's physical form changed as quickly as its population. In the years after 1971, migrants accommodated themselves in the vacant land within the already built-up areas and transformed the rural areas rapidly, especially by filling up the ditches, swamps and marshes. During this period, slums and squatters mushroomed in different locations of the city. The expansion also spread outward. Towns such as Narayanganj, Gazipur, and Savar became part of a wider metropolitan area, a development that is treated in more detail under urbanization and the sections on population and infrastructure.\n\nPost-independence growth outran the capacity of the state to provide services. Roads, drainage, electricity, water supply and schools were expanded in an effort to catch up, but much of the new investment was concentrated in the already built-up core, while the eastern and peripheral areas grew faster than planners could serve them. Industrial and commercial development, including the rise of the garment sector, drew in workers whose housing and livelihoods often remained informal. These pressures are the background to the city's later struggles with congestion, pollution and waterlogging, which are discussed in separate sections."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Governance and administration",
      "text": "Two city corporations and their powers\n\nDhaka's urban core is split between two local bodies. The Local Government (City Corporation) Amendment Act 2011 divided Dhaka City Corporation into Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC) and Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC). Both are governed under the Local Government (City Corporation) Act, 2009, which sets their functions and powers (the functions, powers, and responsibilities of the corporation are governed by the provisions of the Local Government (City Corporation) Act, 2009). Under this law, executive authority sits with the mayor or, where no mayor is in office, with an administrator (the executive power of the Dhaka South City Corporation vests in and is exercised by the mayor/administrator). Day-to-day management is handled by a chief executive officer, with departmental heads and zonal executive officers beneath that post. Each corporation has an elected council of ward representatives, with 100 councillors in the south and 72 councillors in the north.\n\nTheir remit covers a broad range of municipal services. The corporations are responsible for urban planning, transport management, healthcare, education, waste management, water supply, and security, though several of these functions are shared with other agencies.\n\nA divided system of service delivery\n\nMost of the city's utilities are not run by the corporations themselves. Water supply in Dhaka south city corporation area is the responsibility of Dhaka WASA. For electricity and gas, the corporation has to rely on other bodies, including WASA, Titas Gas, DESCO and DPDC. Land use and building control rest largely with RAJUK, which handles building design approval, land allocation and development plans. In practice, this means a corporation may need RAJUK's agreement before acting: for example, the DSCC has had to depend on RAJUK to get a garbage collection site. Coordination across these agencies is also a stated priority for the current administrators; the DNCC administrator has said the corporation will work in coordination with RAJUK, WASA and other relevant agencies on waterlogging and lake bank erosion.\n\nVacant mayoralties and appointed administrators\n\nNeither corporation has had an elected mayor since 2024. The DNCC mayor's post has been vacant since 19 August 2024, and the DSCC's is listed the same way. Under the law, the mayor is directly elected every five years, and the mayor \"operates under the leadership\" of the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives. The national government may also remove the mayor by executive order.\n\nWhen the post is empty, the government fills it with an administrator. The law as summarised in one source allows this for a limited period, since in the absence of an elected mayor, the national government can appoint an administrator for 180 days. In practice, tenures have run longer. The DNCC has had a succession of administrators: Mohammed Mahmudul Hassan, Mohammad Azaz, Suraiya Akter Jahan and Safiqul Islam Khan Milton, with Azaz's tenure lasting 362 days. In February 2026, the Local Government Division appointed new administrators to six city corporations across the country, including Dhaka North and Dhaka South, with Md Abdus Salam named for the south and Shafiqul Islam Khan for the north.\n\nFrequent changes in leadership have made the continuity of municipal decision-making harder to sustain. Each new administrator tends to set fresh priorities, and the DSCC administrator has publicly stated his intention to contest as mayor, which underlines that the appointed posts are seen as provisional until elections are held."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Population and demography",
      "text": "Dhaka's population figures depend heavily on how the metropolitan area is defined, but on the most recent UN basis the city ranks among the largest urban agglomerations in the world. The United Nations World Urbanization Prospects 2025 estimates about 36.6 million residents in 2025, which places Dhaka second in the world behind Jakarta, reported at 41.9 million. In 2000 Dhaka had about 17.4 million people and ranked ninth, so its climb up the global list took roughly a quarter century.\n\nGrowth has been fast for decades. The 2000 and 2025 figures imply an average gain of about 768,000 people a year, and one analysis of the UN data puts the average annual growth rate at about 2.96 percent over the period. The UN projects that the agglomeration will reach about 52.1 million by 2050, which would make it the most populous city in the world, slightly ahead of Jakarta's projected 51.8 million. Some of the increase comes from births within the city, but migration accounts for a large share. A former head of the Department of Population Sciences at the University of Dhaka has argued that rural-to-Dhaka migration runs at more than twice the rate of population growth. Academic studies have put the number of rural migrants arriving each year at around 500,000.\n\nMigration is driven by several forces. Limited employment in rural areas pushes people toward the capital, where construction, manufacturing and informal trades offer work. Shrinking agricultural land leaves many households landless, and environmental stress, including floods and riverbank erosion linked to climate change, adds further pressure to leave. Many newcomers settle in crowded informal settlements, which concentrates demand for housing, water and sanitation in areas that are often poorly served. Rapid urbanization of this kind is therefore tied to rural livelihoods as much as to urban employment.\n\nThe measurement basis also matters. The 2025 figures use a new UN method that defines an urban agglomeration as a contiguous area of grid cells with at least 1,500 people per square kilometre and a minimum population of 50,000. Earlier editions relied on national administrative boundaries, so the new figures are not directly comparable with them. Because the built-up area extends beyond the city corporations into neighbouring districts, a figure for the city corporation area alone will be considerably lower than the agglomeration total. Older estimates, such as the roughly 15 million that a World Bank analysis cited for the mid-2000s, likewise reflect different boundaries and should not be read as a direct series. Rankings can also shift with methodology: the same report notes that the agglomeration-based approach changed the order of the world's largest city-regions.\n\nTaken together, the figures describe a population that has more than doubled since 2000 and is still expanding. The main open questions concern whether the projected growth can be absorbed by housing, transport, water and energy systems, and how statistical methods will continue to define the city's size in future editions."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Economy and employment",
      "text": "Dhaka is the largest economic centre in Bangladesh. The economy of Dhaka is the largest in the country, and the city's sector mix is weighted toward services, which one profile puts at about 51 percent of output, with industry at about 38 percent and agriculture at about 11 percent. The city's finance, trade and manufacturing activity draws firms and workers from across the country, so the city's share of national output is larger than its population share.\n\nManufacturing, above all the ready-made garment (RMG) industry, is the economic base that gives the city its national weight. The sector expanded rapidly after the early 1980s, when duty-free import licences for garment machinery were issued. In 1984-85, there were 632 factories, whereas in 2024, this number has increased to approximately 4,000. Estimates of the sector's importance vary by source and method. One industry body states that the garment industry contributes approximately 11% to Bangladesh's GDP and accounts for around 82% of the country's export revenue. Another series reports that the sector accounted for 11.7% of Bangladesh's GDP in FY2021-22, and that its share of total export earnings in 2022 was about 84.5 percent. Because most factories and their supply networks sit in and around the capital, these national shares depend heavily on Dhaka's output.\n\nThe garment sector is also the city's largest source of formal industrial employment. Sources differ on the headcount. One industry body says the industry provides employment to nearly 5 million workers, the majority of whom are women from rural areas, while another estimate counts about four million direct workers. Many of these workers are migrants. One compilation reports that around half of garment workers came from rural areas, a pattern that links the factory economy to the urban growth described in the population section. Other sectors listed among the city's main industries include Pharmaceutical Products; Electronics; Shipbuilding; Automotive; Bicycle; Leather; Jute; Fishing; Glass; Paper; Plastic; Food and Beverages; Cement, though most of these are far smaller in employment than garments.\n\nMuch of the city's work, however, falls outside the formal sector. The ILO defines informal employment as work without labour or social protection—both inside and outside informal enterprises. Nationally, one estimate holds that 85% of the workforce (around 51.7 million people) employed informally, and an earlier Asian Development Bank study found that almost 77% of the jobs available in the country's labor market in 2010 are undertaken in informal production units. Surveys of Dhaka's informal enterprises describe workers with long hours, low wages, no benefits or job security. Informal workers are less likely to receive pension, social protection, and a notice of termination compared to formal workers.\n\nWage levels reflect this divide. One reported average gross monthly salary for the city was about 29,700 taka in 2023, roughly US$240, which sits at the lower end of urban pay scales and does not describe the informal workforce as a whole. Formal garment wages, in turn, are set against a large pool of informal labour that keeps bargaining power low. The result is a city whose economic output is high but whose employment base is unevenly protected, with formal factory jobs, large informal sectors and migrant labour existing side by side."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Urban infrastructure and transport",
      "text": "Estimates of what congestion costs Dhaka vary widely. A World Bank estimate, as reported in one commentary, puts the annual economic loss at $3–5 billion through lost time, excess fuel consumption and operational inefficiencies. A study by the BUET Accident Research Institute gives a range of Tk 370–550 billion, or roughly $3.5–5.2 billion a year, and a later ARI estimate reaches $6.5 billion when lost productivity, fuel wastage and health-related expenses are counted. A BRAC Institute study, cited in an academic paper, has put the figure as high as $11.4 billion a year. The differences reflect how each study defines its costs, not a settled consensus. The physical effects are more consistent across sources. Peak-hour speeds in some studies fall as low as 6 to 8 kilometres per hour, and one account reports that average speeds have dropped from about 25 km/h to 4.8 km/h amid poor planning and a rising number of private cars.\n\nThe causes are structural rather than simply a matter of volume. One study of a Dhaka corridor identifies poor infrastructure, the high volume of small private vehicles, and inadequate public transport as the main drivers. Private cars take up a large share of road space relative to their passenger numbers: on one heavily used corridor, cars account for 35–40% of vehicles but carry only 15–20% of the total commuters. Bus services are fragmented. On the corridor selected for a proposed bus rapid transit line, an estimated 4,858 large and mini buses operate, and about a quarter of them reportedly do not have a proper permit, with routes divided among mostly private operators. Responsibility is also dispersed, and one study counts more than 30 agencies involved in traffic management, which hampers coordinated action.\n\nRoad space is shared with little separation between vehicle types. Even planned corridors reflect this mix. The design for the Gazipur–airport bus route, for example, would have placed dedicated buses on two central lanes of the highway, while four lanes were to carry mixed traffic and two more would serve slow-moving vehicles. Rickshaws, buses, motorcycles and private cars therefore compete for the same carriageway, and the resulting stop-start movement adds to accidents and emissions.\n\nThe city's main effort to add high-capacity transit is the metro rail. MRT Line 6 opened in stages, with the first section beginning commercial operations on 29 December 2022 and the second section on 5 November 2023. The line is entirely elevated, with 16 stations operating between Uttara North and Motijheel. Its construction was slowed by disagreements about the route, the July 2016 Dhaka attack, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Commuters on the corridor have reported large time savings, with a trip that once took about two hours by road now taking just 30-40 minutes on the metro. Part of the improvement in road speeds along the corridor, however, may stem from roads rebuilt during construction rather than from the metro itself reducing traffic. Further lines are at earlier stages. MRT Line 1 is under construction, with opening targeted for December 2033, and MRT Line 4 remains a proposal scheduled to be completed by 2030.\n\nBus rapid transit has followed a slower path. The Gazipur–airport corridor, a 20-kilometre route supported by the Asian Development Bank and the Global Environment Facility, was intended to give buses a segregated right of way. Physical work on this corridor began in 2016 but remains incomplete. Operation was expected in 2023, more than six and a half years after its original deadline, and the infrastructure has gone over double the estimated cost. In 2025, BRT Line-3 was shelved due to expected traffic chaos as it neared completion, although a bus route still runs on the unfinished line. The planned benefit was substantial: the trip from Gazipur to Dhaka, which then took somewhere between 1.5 and four hours, was expected to fall to 35-40 minutes."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Housing, slums and urban poverty",
      "text": "A large share of Dhaka's population lives in informal settlements, known locally as bostis. Rural-to-urban migration keeps feeding these settlements, since rapid urbanization, coupled with continuous rural-to-urban migration, is contributing to the expansion of informal settlements throughout the city. Estimates of how many people live in them vary. One review of Dhaka Division puts the slum population at over 8.84 million people, while a total of 40 lakhs is the estimate provided by several non-governmental groups. Another review gives a lower share for the city, stating that approximately 20% of Dhaka's population lives in slums. The gap reflects differences in geographic boundaries and survey methods, so the figures should be compared with care.\n\nAccess to basic services in slums is uneven, and the formal system has historically excluded many households. Because of their informal tenure, utilities historically have not been mandated to provide water and sanitation services to slum households. In practice, residents often rely on informal arrangements. A large proportion of slum residents in Dhaka obtain water from illegal piped connections from the utility company, Dhaka Water and Sewerage Authority (DWASA), or from private pumps. Sanitation is similarly organised through informal channels, with access often controlled by local power brokers who act as landlords or intermediaries. Coverage figures differ by source and date. An older estimate found that the water supply coverage in the slums is about 69%, the sanitary latrines coverage is only 48%. A World Bank analysis of household surveys found that access is overall quite high, but these services are subject to differential quality, and it concluded that quality remains low overall within slums.\n\nThe quality of services affects health directly. Within slums, shared facilities are common: water points and sanitation facilities in slums are commonly shared among multiple households. A 2025 study of Korail found that near-universal access to water and improved sanitation during both normal and water-logging periods, but self-reported handwashing was less common during water-logging periods compared to normal periods. This suggests that basic access alone does not guarantee hygienic practice when flooding occurs. Waste is another pressure point. Because of their low elevation, slums often become dumping grounds for trash from neighboring communities. One study linked the dirty environment to infection, reporting that about 34% of the slum dwellers are affected by various infectious diseases. Overcrowding compounds these risks. In one older survey, on the average 3.9 persons lived in one room of 2.4 x 4 metres.\n\nUrban poverty shapes where people can live. Dhaka City is characterized by high levels of poverty and income inequality, which exacerbate the health risks associated with unplanned urbanization. Rents and land costs push low-income households toward the cheapest available sites, which are often low-lying, poorly drained and poorly served. Many of these households work in the garment industry or in informal employment, and their wages limit their options. Slum residents are also exposed to insecurity. In one study, about 10% slum households suffered from theft during the last six months, 5% households suffered from violence. Forced eviction is a recurring risk, and one local observer noted that some slums are evicted but there is no initiative for the relocation of the slum dwellers. Residents therefore face the combined effects of inadequate services, environmental hazards and insecure tenure. Efforts to improve services, including the water points that DWASA approved in some settlements from the 1990s, have had limited reach. Integrating these communities into formal urban planning remains a central challenge for the city's public health and poverty reduction policies."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Environment, pollution and public health",
      "text": "Air pollution in Dhaka is driven largely by fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and brick kilns and motor vehicles are the two best-documented sources. One source-apportionment estimate puts their shares at approximately 22% and 36% respectively of the city's fine particulate matter, although figures differ between studies and monitoring periods. The two sources behave differently over the year. Kilns operate mainly in the dry season, and during the November-March firing season, reduced winter dispersion lifts brick-kiln contributions to 30-50 percent of ambient PM2.5. Concentrations follow the same pattern: averaging 175 μg/m3 during winter, but only 32 μg/m3 during the summertime monsoon season. Vehicle emissions have become a smaller share than before. Leaded petrol was banned and two-stroke engines were shifted to compressed natural gas, so brick kilns have become the dominant source of PM, according to recent studies.\n\nThe Buriganga, which runs alongside the old city, is among the most polluted rivers in Bangladesh. Its pollution load is split between sources: the river reportedly carries about 61 per cent industrial and 39 per cent domestic waste. The tanneries of Hazaribagh are usually identified as the largest single contributor. An estimated 500 tanneries, including 200 large units in Hazaribagh, discharge 4.75 million litres of highly toxic waste into the river. Many of these plants lack effluent treatment, and most industries do not have any treatment facility at all while others that do, do not operate them regularly. Domestic pollution enters through the same channels, as much of the sewage flows directly into canals that empty into the Buriganga, carrying untreated human waste and detergents. The effects are measurable: high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and low Dissolved Oxygen (DO) values in Buriganga water reflect the organic and chemical load. Such conditions degrade aquatic habitats and threaten the water that some residents still use for domestic purposes. Pollution is also more concentrated in the dry season, when reduced flow leaves the same discharges in less water.\n\nSolid waste is the third major pressure. Estimates of the volume vary by boundary and year. One figure puts the four city corporations' output at about 11,500 tonnes of solid waste daily, while a Dhaka South City Corporation-based estimate gives roughly 6,465 tons of waste daily. Whichever figure is used, collection is the bottleneck. Only about 37% of this waste is formally collected. The uncollected remainder spills into drains, clogs waterways, burns in open air, or simply piles up on unregulated dumpsites. The two principal landfills, Amin Bazar and Matuail, are already exhausted, and continued dumping by uncontrolled methods is making conditions worse. The waste is also dominated by organic matter, which is wet and decomposes quickly. Plastic bags and packaging clog tributaries and choke the river's surface, so waste accumulation contributes directly to blocked drains and urban flooding.\n\nThese environmental pressures converge on public health. Fine particles from kilns and vehicles are inhaled by a dense population, while contaminated rivers, stagnant drains and decomposing refuse create conditions for waterborne and vector-borne infections. Because exposure to these hazards is uneven across the city, the health burden falls most heavily on residents of low-lying and densely built neighbourhoods, where drainage is poorest and access to safe water and sanitation is most limited."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Culture, language and heritage",
      "text": "Bengali is the working language of Dhaka's public, commercial and cultural life, and the city's artistic output is closely tied to it. Dhaka's literary life includes an annual literary festival: Dhaka Lit Fest is an annual literary festival held in Dhaka. Since 2012 it has taken place every November in the grounds of Bangla Academy, with sessions over three days, mainly in English. Theatre has a long local base as well. More than a dozen theatre groups in Dhaka regularly stage locally written plays and adaptations of works by well-known writers, mostly of European origin. Popular groups include Dhaka Theatre, Nagarik Nattya Sampraday and Theatre. Dramatic performance is concentrated in particular districts: Baily Road is known as Natak Para, where drama is regularly staged.\n\nThe city's cultural centrality is a relatively recent development. Until 1947, the theatre of the urban Bengali elite was centred in Calcutta. After the partition, Dhaka took on that role for eastern Bengal. Film followed a similar path. After Bangladesh separated from Pakistan, Dhaka became the centre of the country's film industry and produces the majority of its revenue, production and audiences. The local industry is nicknamed Dhallywood, a blend of \"Dhaka\" and \"Hollywood\", and its first Bengali-language feature was produced in 1956.\n\nThe Language Movement of 1952 has become the most powerful symbol of the city's cultural identity. On 21 and 22 February 1952, students from Dhaka University and Dhaka Medical College, along with political activists, were killed when police opened fire on Bengali protesters demanding official status for their language. The killings took place near Dhaka Medical College and Ramna Park. The Shaheed Minar memorial was designed and built by the Bangladeshi sculptors Hamidur Rahman and Novera Ahmed. Construction was delayed under martial law, but the monument was completed in 1963. It was destroyed during the 1971 war. Each year, national, mourning, cultural and other activities are held on 21 February (Ekushey February) to mark Language Movement Day or Shaheed Dibas (Martyrs' Day), centred on the Shaheed Minar. The protest also shaped music: the song Ekusher Gaan became the most widely associated anthem of the movement, and on every 21 February, people from across Bangladesh walk barefoot in a procession to the Shaheed Minar, singing the song. Since 2000, 21 February has also been recognised internationally as International Mother Language Day.\n\nRickshaws and their painted decoration are the city's most recognisable cultural form. In December 2023 UNESCO added Bangladesh's rickshaws and rickshaw art to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. The listing covers Dhaka's rickshaw painting as a whole, which UNESCO describes as a key part of the city's cultural tradition and a dynamic form of urban folk art, giving inhabitants a sense of shared identity and continuity. The vehicles themselves are a common subject for painters and filmmakers. Decorated rickshaws are emblematic of urban life in Dhaka and often feature in films and other artworks. The craft is passed on informally: master craftsmen known as ustads teach their techniques to apprentices through hands-on training. Over half of Bangladesh's cycle rickshaws are in Dhaka.\n\nReligious life is plural. Dhaka has a large Muslim majority and also contains Hindu temples, Buddhist and Christian places of worship, and the Dhakeshwari temple, which is associated with the city's name. Its calendar combines national observances, such as Language Movement Day and Independence Day, with religious festivals of several communities, including Eid, Durga Puja and the Bengali New Year (Pohela Boishakh).\n\nHistoric architecture links these traditions to the city's political past. Lalbagh Fort is a Mughal-era complex begun in the late seventeenth century and never completed. Ahsan Manzil, on the bank of the Buriganga, is a nineteenth-century palace of the Nawab family, painted pink and now a museum. The Shaheed Minar and other Ekushey monuments make the built environment a physical record of the language movement and the struggle that followed."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Education, research and media",
      "text": "Dhaka holds the largest concentration of higher education in Bangladesh. The higher education landscape is anchored by the University of Dhaka, which was established in 1921 and is the oldest active university in Bangladesh. Other large institutions include Jahangirnagar University (1970) on the outskirts of the capital, and the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (1962) at Dhaka. Private universities have expanded the sector considerably. A 2026 directory lists 87 recognized universities in the district of Dhaka, though the count depends on which institutions are included and how the district is defined.\n\nThe University of Dhaka is the largest of these institutions by enrolment. It reported 44,895 students (2023), of whom more than 30,000 were undergraduates. Its research structure is broad. Its institutes cover disaster management and vulnerability studies, health economics, nutrition and food science, energy, and leather engineering and technology, which connects the university to several of the city's main policy problems. Medical training is concentrated in the city as well, with institutions such as Dhaka Medical College Hospital, Dhaka National Medical College and Dr. Sirajul Islam Medical College listed among the city's universities and colleges. Agricultural teaching, by contrast, is largely located outside the core city, as with the Bangladesh Agricultural University, which is based at Mymensingh.\n\nDhaka is also the country's main media hub. National newspapers include Bengali titles such as Prothom Alo, Ittefaq, Inqilab, Janakantha and Jugantor, alongside English-language papers such as The Daily Star, The Financial Express and The Business Standard. Newer outlets are also based here; for example, The Dhaka Tribune is a Bangladeshi English-language daily newspaper based in Dhaka. Some titles specialize, such as Bonik Barta, which has given particular emphasis to news on business, trade and economics since its founding.\n\nThe publishing industry has a longer history in the city. In 1849, the Katra Press became the first printing press in the city. Dhaka's publishing base developed more slowly than Kolkata's, and Dhaka's publishing scene grew slowly, lagging behind Kolkata by more than half a century. The number of publishing houses expanded markedly after 1947, rising from 27 in 1947 to 88 in 1966. The 1960s saw a shift as textbook publishing gained prominence after the establishment of the East Pakistan Textbook Board. Today the book trade is concentrated in Banglabazaar, which has since become the hub of the book trade.\n\nPublishing in Bengali also acquired a political dimension. Publishing in Bangla became a form of cultural resistance, especially after Urdu was declared the state language, sparking the historic 1952 Language Movement. Rising literacy and a growing urban middle class then sustained demand, and the 1950s and 1960s saw rapid growth in textbooks, political commentary, translations, and literary works. Universities, the press and the book trade thus remain closely linked, with the city's academic and editorial communities shaping debates that reach well beyond Dhaka."
    },
    {
      "heading": "Planning, climate resilience and future challenges",
      "text": "Long-term planning for Dhaka is organised mainly through structure plans prepared by the Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha (RAJUK), the capital development authority. The current framework, the Dhaka Structure Plan 2016–2035, was presented for public consultation in September 2015. Its stated aim is a \"livable, functional and resilient\" metropolis that respects local socio-cultural life and environmental sustainability. A detailed area plan for the same period translates these goals into zoning and density rules. Implementation has lagged well behind the documents. The earlier 1995–2015 plan called for the protection of 530 water bodies and 220 canals, but that protection was largely not achieved, and critics argue that none of the earlier structure plans was carried out despite considerable spending on their preparation. Some professional commentators have also warned that the detailed area plan could increase traffic and population density, reduce water bodies and legalise unauthorised construction.\n\nFlood protection and drainage form the core of the city's climate strategy, and they are tied to national planning. Bangladesh lies less than five metres above mean sea level and receives water from upstream hills and catchments, so Dhaka's flood exposure depends on conditions far beyond its boundaries. The Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100, formulated by the government in 2018 with Dutch technical input, places safety from floods and climate-related disasters first among its goals. The plan sets flood protection standards that tighten over time for economic centres and critical infrastructure, moving from roughly 1-in-100 and 1-in-250 event levels up to 2030 towards 1-in-1,000 to 1-in-2,500 by 2100. Among its urban components, twelve projects with a combined cost of about BDT 672 billion were identified for the delta's towns and cities, and two of the flood-protection schemes are intended to protect parts of the Dhaka metropolitan area. The River Bank Improvement Project, which strengthens and extends embankments around the city, is expected to improve drainage and transport as well as flood defence.\n\nClimate projections add further pressure, although they vary by scenario. Under a business-as-usual trajectory, annual rainfall is expected to rise in most regions by 2030, while parts of the south may see reductions by 2050, and higher-warming scenarios bring more erratic rainfall. The same modelling projects that national paddy output would fall by about 1.6 per cent by 2050 and 5.1 per cent by 2100 as yields decline, with more flooding and salinity intrusion adding to losses. Because rural livelihoods are weakened by these hazards, the rural-to-urban movement into Dhaka is likely to continue, which in turn increases demand for housing, water, energy and waste services. Heat stress and monsoon flooding compound these demands, and urban heat effects may intensify as built-up land expands.\n\nThe main challenges are financial, institutional and social. Delta planning documents identify resource constraints, the need to build capacity among implementing agencies, and poor coordination between ministries and local bodies as obstacles to delivery. Financing options under discussion include cost-recovery systems for services, public-private partnerships and dedicated funds for dredging, drainage and water supply. Open questions include how to fund infrastructure at the scale required, how to bring informal settlements into formal planning without displacing residents, and how to limit the environmental costs of rapid industrial and population growth. These questions remain under active debate among government agencies, researchers and international partners, and the outcome will shape whether Dhaka's growth can be reconciled with its low-lying, flood-prone setting."
    }
  ],
  "links": [
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    "united-kingdom",
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    "united-nations",
    "city",
    "statistics",
    "world-bank",
    "public-health",
    "poverty",
    "higher-education",
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  ],
  "sources": [
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
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    },
    {
      "title": "whc.unesco.org",
      "url": "https://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/6675"
    },
    {
      "title": "Muslin - Banglapedia",
      "url": "https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Muslin"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka muslin",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaka_muslin"
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    {
      "title": "Lalbagh Fort",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalbagh_Fort"
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    {
      "title": "Naib Nazim of Dhaka",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naib_Nazim_of_Dhaka"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka - Students",
      "url": "https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Dhaka/273984"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka District",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaka_District"
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    {
      "title": "Partition of Bengal 1905: Causes & Effects",
      "url": "https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/partition-of-bengal-1905"
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1905)"
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    {
      "title": "History of the University of Dhaka",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_University_of_Dhaka"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka - New World Encyclopedia",
      "url": "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Dhaka"
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    {
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      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/dhaka-and-after-partition-3185521"
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      "title": "Dhaka, Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1057/978-1-349-95839-9_1002"
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    {
      "title": "Partition of Bengal (1947)",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Bengal_(1947)"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka: Capital of Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://modeldiplomat.com/learn/glossary/dhaka"
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    {
      "title": "Bengali language movement",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language_movement"
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    {
      "title": "Language Movement Day",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Movement_Day"
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    {
      "title": "Historical Context: The 1952 Bengali Language Movement: Protests, Martyrs, and the Fight for Linguistic Rights",
      "url": "https://cuny.manifoldapp.org/read/cohort-i-archive/section/fe7ea05c-807d-46d5-abd8-1b13d048709f"
    },
    {
      "title": "The Language Movement of Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://globalpoliticaltheoryproject.pages.wm.edu/2022/05/16/the-language-movement/"
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    {
      "title": "Bangladesh « World Without Genocide - Making It Our Legacy",
      "url": "https://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/bangladesh"
    },
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      "url": "https://bootcampmilitaryfitnessinstitute.com/2021/03/31/what-was-the-bangladesh-liberation-war-1971/"
    },
    {
      "title": "1971 in Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_in_Bangladesh"
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    {
      "title": "Climate Migration Pushes Bangladesh’s Megacity to the Brink (Bloomberg) - Mayors Migration Council",
      "url": "https://mayorsmigrationcouncil.org/news/mepus806zp498tkoam3ihef6bulejy/"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) City Profile: Dhaka, Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335312684_City_Profile_Dhaka_Bangladesh"
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      "url": "https://www.liberationwarmuseumbd.org/page/history"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War"
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    {
      "title": "1971 Liberation war, birth of Bangladesh and comparison with present day Pakistan :: EFSAS",
      "url": "https://www.efsas.org/publications/research-dossiers/1971-liberation-war,-birth-of-bangladesh-and-comparison-with-present-day-pakistan/"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka city’s unbridled expansion",
      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/news/dhaka-citys-unbridled-expansion-2076657"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka South City Corporation",
      "url": "https://translate.google.com/translate?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDhaka_South_City_Corporation&hl=bn&sl=en&tl=bn&client=wa"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka South City Corporation",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaka_South_City_Corporation"
    },
    {
      "title": "A Case Study of Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC)-",
      "url": "https://cabinet.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/cabinet.portal.gov.bd/research_corner/6050d153_978b_45ec_beeb_7731931d6890/A%20Case%20Study%20of%20Dhaka%20South%20City%20Corporation%20(DSCC)-%20Analysis%20of%20the%20activities%20and%20Challenges%20to%20make%20it%20Citizen%20Friendly.pdf"
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    {
      "title": "Administrator: DNCC joins RAJUK, WASA to tackle waterlogging, lake erosion",
      "url": "https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/dhaka/415066/administrator-dncc-joins-rajuk-wasa-to-tackle"
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    {
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      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_North_Dhaka"
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    {
      "title": "New administrators appointed to six city corporations",
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    {
      "title": "Will transform Dhaka within 3 years if elected mayor: Dhaka South administrator",
      "url": "https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/will-transform-dhaka-within-3-years-if-elected-mayor-dhaka-south-administrator-1408666"
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    {
      "title": "Mohammed Mahmudul Hassan",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Mahmudul_Hassan"
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    {
      "title": "UN / WORLD URBANIZATION PROSPECTS",
      "url": "https://media.un.org/unifeed/en/asset/d350/d3503362"
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    {
      "title": "Most populous city: How Dhaka can overcome crisis as it rises to top globally",
      "url": "https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/city/mcaybdujgq"
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      "title": "Dhaka emerges 2nd most populous city in the world",
      "url": "https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/bangladesh-environment/397420/dhaka-emerges-2nd-most-populous-city-in-the-world"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka world’s 2nd largest city with 36.6 million: UN",
      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/dhaka-worlds-2nd-largest-city-366-million-un-4043976"
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    {
      "title": "World City Population Map Update with the New World Urbanization Prospects 2025",
      "url": "https://citygeographics.org/2025/11/19/world-city-population-map-update-with-the-new-world-urbanization-prospects-2025/"
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      "title": "(PDF) Rural-Urban Migration and Informal Sector of Dhaka City: Issues and Facts",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392263710_Rural-Urban_Migration_and_Informal_Sector_of_Dhaka_City_Issues_and_Facts"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka, Bangladesh: Fastest Growing City in the World - CBS News",
      "url": "https://www.cbsnews.com/news/dhaka-bangladesh-fastest-growing-city-in-the-world/"
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    {
      "title": "Economy of Dhaka",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Dhaka"
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      "title": "FICCI",
      "url": "https://www.ficci.org.bd/en/blog/ready-made-garment-textile-sector-the-change-maker-of-bangladesh-economy"
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    {
      "title": "Bangladesh Garment Industry Statistics [Fresh Research]",
      "url": "https://gitnux.org/bangladesh-garment-industry-statistics/"
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    {
      "title": "INFORMAL LABOUR FORCE - Dhaka",
      "url": "https://unnayan.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/INFORMAL-LABOUR-FORCE.pdf"
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    {
      "title": "Inequitable morbidity and injuries burden among informal sector workers in an urban area in Dhaka: a retrospective analysis of Médecins Sans Frontières occupational health clinics, Bangladesh, 2014–2023",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12865996/"
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    {
      "title": "The Informal Sector and Informal Employment in Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://www.adb.org/publications/informal-sector-and-informal-employment-bangladesh"
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      "title": "A study on the workers of the informal sectors in dhaka",
      "url": "https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/a-study-on-the-workers-of-the-informal-sectors-in-dhaka-38454001/38454001"
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      "title": "Bangladesh Garment Industry: Data Reports 2026",
      "url": "https://wifitalents.com/bangladesh-garment-industry-statistics/"
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    {
      "title": "The economic burden of Dhaka’s congested transport system",
      "url": "https://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/410596/the-economic-burden-of-dhaka%E2%80%99s-congested-transport"
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    {
      "title": "Addressing the Economic Cost of Traffic Congestion",
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    {
      "title": "Beyond flyovers and expressways: What can solve Dhaka’s traffic crisis?",
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    {
      "title": "(DOC) Traffic Congestion in Dhaka City. A case study on Jhigatola to Mohammadpur Area .",
      "url": "https://www.academia.edu/37773621/Traffic_Congestion_in_Dhaka_City_A_case_study_on_Jhigatola_to_Mohammadpur_Area_"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) Bus Rapid Transit (BRT): What Is It and Why Do We Need It for Dhaka?",
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    {
      "title": "42169-013: Greater Dhaka Sustainable Urban Transport Project",
      "url": "https://www.adb.org/projects/42169-013/main"
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      "url": "https://www.academia.edu/32138880/Traffic_Congestion_in_Dhaka_City"
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      "title": "Dhaka Metro Rail Latest Update 2026",
      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/slow-reads/big-picture/news/dhakas-metro-rail-mass-transit-solution-or-missed-opportunity-4155146"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka BRT: Slow lane to nowhere?",
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      "title": "Dhaka BRT",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaka_BRT"
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    {
      "title": "Physarum Inspired Bicycle Lane Network Design in a Congested Mega City",
      "url": "https://arxiv.org/pdf/2301.13609"
    },
    {
      "title": "Dhaka Bus-Rapid-Transit .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform",
      "url": "https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=99&nr=331&menu=1449"
    },
    {
      "title": "ASTUD: Greater Dhaka Sustainable Urban Transport Corridor Project",
      "url": "https://www.thegef.org/projects-operations/projects/4931"
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    {
      "title": "ROLE OF BUS RAPID TRANSIT (BRT) AS A TRAFFIC SOLUTION FOR DHAKA CITY",
      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/round-tables/role-bus-rapid-transit-brt-traffic-solution-dhaka-city-80928"
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    {
      "title": "Assessing Water Security in Dhaka City Slums",
      "url": "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/18/16/1974"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) Unplanned urbanization and health risks of Dhaka City in Bangladesh: uncovering the associations between urban environment and public health",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374856273_Unplanned_urbanization_and_health_risks_of_Dhaka_City_in_Bangladesh_uncovering_the_associations_between_urban_environment_and_public_health"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) Unplanned urbanization and health risks of Dhaka City in Bangladesh: uncovering the associations between urban environment and public health",
      "url": "https://www.academia.edu/111511803/Unplanned_urbanization_and_health_risks_of_Dhaka_City_in_Bangladesh_uncovering_the_associations_between_urban_environment_and_public_health"
    },
    {
      "title": "Policy Research Working Paper 8552 Water and Sanitation in Dhaka Slums",
      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/607511534337128809/pdf/WPS8552.pdf"
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      "title": "(PDF) DRINKING WATER QUALITY IN SOME SELCTED SLUMS OF DHAKA CITY, BANGLADESH",
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    {
      "title": "Differences in access to water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities among residents of Korail Slum, Bangladesh, during normal vs. water-logging situations",
      "url": "https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0332534"
    },
    {
      "title": "Poor waste management around Dhaka slum poses health risks",
      "url": "https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/poor-waste-management-around-dhaka-slum-poses-health-risks-536602"
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    {
      "title": "Health situation of slum dwellers of metropolitan area of Dhaka - PubMed",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2629699"
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    {
      "title": "(PDF) Slum Health in Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333610181_Slum_Health_in_Bangladesh"
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    {
      "title": "Case Study Rights of Water Connections for Urban Slum Dwellers in Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/rights-of-water-connections-for-urban-slum-dwellers-in-bangladesh"
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    {
      "title": "Comprehensive source apportionment of PM2.5-bound water-soluble inorganic ions in Dhaka: A combined PCA and PMF approach - ScienceDirect",
      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590162126000936"
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      "title": "(PDF) Particulate pollution from brick kiln clusters in the Greater Dhaka region, Bangladesh",
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      "title": "Assessing the PM2.5 impact of biomass combustion in megacity Dhaka, Bangladesh - ScienceDirect",
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    },
    {
      "title": "Airborne Particulate Pollution Measured in Bangladesh from 2014 to 2017 - Aerosol and Air Quality Research",
      "url": "https://aaqr.org/articles/aaqr-18-08-oa-0284"
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      "title": "Buriganga chokes on pollutants",
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      "title": "Buriganga in Peril: From Industrial Waste to Renewal",
      "url": "https://www.diplotic.com/buriganga-in-peril-from-toxic-waste-to-recovery/"
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    {
      "title": "Present status of the Buriganga River",
      "url": "https://ce.uap-bd.edu/Project%20&%20Thesis/present_status_of_the_buriganga_river.html"
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    {
      "title": "A strategic roadmap for Dhaka's solid waste management",
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    {
      "title": "Assessment of environmental sustainability of solid waste management system of Dhaka city through life cycle analysis - PMC",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12541063/"
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    {
      "title": "Inside Dhaka’s waste management crisis",
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    {
      "title": "Source and respiratory deposition of trace elements in PM2.5 at an urban location in Dhaka city - PMC",
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka Lit Fest",
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    {
      "title": "Central Shaheed Minar",
      "url": "https://www.beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd/loc/dhaka/92"
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      "title": "Ekusher Gaan",
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    {
      "title": "From streets to heritage: UNESCO recognises rickshaws and rickshaw art as intangible cultural heritage",
      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/streets-heritage-unesco-recognises-rickshaws-and-rickshaw-art-intangible-cultural-heritage-3490731"
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      "title": "Unesco lists Bangladesh's rickshaw paintings as 'intangible heritage'",
      "url": "https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/unesco-lists-bangladeshs-rickshaw-paintings-intangible-heritage-752882"
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    {
      "title": "Unesco recognizes rickshaws and rickshaw paintings in Bangladesh as intangible cultural heritage",
      "url": "https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/333159/unesco-recognizes-rickshaws-and-rickshaw-paintings"
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    {
      "title": "Rickshaw painting of Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickshaw_painting_of_Bangladesh"
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      "title": "UNESCO Lists Bangladesh Rickshaw Art As Intangible Heritage",
      "url": "https://www.outlooktraveller.com/experiences/heritage/the-rickshaw-art-of-bangladesh-is-now-unesco-intangible-heritage"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka's rickshaws, rickshaw arts inscribed on UNESCO's intangible heritage list",
      "url": "https://www.bssnews.net/news/161915"
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    {
      "title": "Rickshaw Painting: A Colourful Heritage of Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/rickshaw-painting-colourful-heritage-bangladesh"
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      "title": "International Mother Language Day",
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      "title": "University of Dhaka",
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      "title": "University of Dhaka",
      "url": "https://www.britannica.com/place/University-of-Dhaka"
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      "title": "2026 A-Z list of 87 Dhaka Universities",
      "url": "https://www.unirank.org/bd/dhaka/a-z/"
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      "title": "Category:Universities and colleges in Dhaka",
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      "title": "Bonik Barta",
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      "title": "What’s holding back Bangladesh’s book industry? - Asia News NetworkAsia News Network",
      "url": "https://asianews.network/whats-holding-back-bangladeshs-book-industry/"
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    {
      "title": "What’s holding back Bangladesh’s book industry?",
      "url": "https://www.thedailystar.net/slow-reads/big-picture/news/whats-holding-back-bangladeshs-book-industry-4029691"
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      "title": "Bangladeshi Publishing Companies",
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka Structure Plan 2016-2035 Overview",
      "url": "https://www.scribd.com/document/523134640/Case-Study-Dhaka-Structure-Plan-2016-2035"
    },
    {
      "title": "The proposed Dhaka Structure Plan 2016-2035",
      "url": "https://theindependentbd.com/printversion/details/19567"
    },
    {
      "title": "DAP looks to make Dhaka liveable by 2035",
      "url": "https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/infrastructure/dap-looks-make-dhaka-liveable-2035-amid-realtors-opposition-351151"
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    {
      "title": "Dhaka's environment to be jeopardised if draft DAP implemented: Experts",
      "url": "https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/dhakas-environment-to-be-jeopardised-if-draft-dap-implemented-experts-1606278520"
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    {
      "title": "Investment-Plan-for-BDP-2100.pdf - World Bank Document",
      "url": "https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/890611546628658220/pdf/Investment-Plan-for-BDP-2100.pdf"
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    {
      "title": "Bangladesh Delta Plan (BDP) 2100 (First Draft)",
      "url": "https://gedkp.gov.bd/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Water-resources.pdf"
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    {
      "title": "Bangladesh Delta Plan (BDP) 2100",
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    {
      "title": "Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 Bangladesh in the 21st Century (Abridged Version)",
      "url": "https://oldweb.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/UnitPublication/1/756/BDP%202100%20Abridged%20Version%20English.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "2024 floods of Bangladesh",
      "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_floods_of_Bangladesh"
    },
    {
      "title": "Banladesh Delta Plan 2100 1 Part 1 The Plan",
      "url": "https://objectstorage.ap-dcc-gazipur-1.oraclecloud15.com/n/axvjbnqprylg/b/V2Ministry/o/office-plandiv/2024/12/90273c3962ef480aa9dce8b4d35794ef.pdf"
    },
    {
      "title": "Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100",
      "url": "https://www.witteveenbos.com/projects/bangladesh-delta-plan-2100"
    }
  ],
  "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
}